Tools
Aggression in Hypothalamic Hamartoma
Introduction
Hypothalamic hamartomas are benign congenital tumors that arise from the ventral hypothalamus.[1][2] Research has identified 2 clinical phenotypes of hypothalamic hamartoma: parahypothalamic and intrahypothalamic hamartoma.[3] Parahypothalmic hamartomas, or pedunculated, are attached to the anterior hypothalamus. Parahypothalamic hamartomas are highly associated with central precocious puberty, whereas intrahypothalamic hamartoma attached to the posterior hypothalamus correlates highly with treatment-resistant epilepsy.[4][5] This treatment-resistant epilepsy mainly starts with gelastic (laughing) seizures, which later develop into other resistant seizure types, including localization-related and generalized seizures. Nearly 40% of patients with hypothalamic hamartoma have both central precocious puberty and epilepsy; however, this is more related to larger lesions that arise from the anterior and posterior hypothalamus.[4]
The intrahypothalamic subtype of hypothalamic hamartoma, in particular, is also associated with neurobehavioral comorbidity, including cognitive impairment and psychiatric symptoms.[6][7] Cognitive impairment varies in patients, from mild to severe, depending on the earlier age of onset of the first seizure, frequency, size, and the number of antiepileptic drugs.[8][9]
Psychiatric symptoms are a common comorbid feature of hypothalamic hamartoma with epilepsy.[10] These are most disabling in patients and are a significant challenge for the patient and their families. Most commonly, psychiatric symptoms present with externalizing behaviors such as aggression and rage attacks. Patients can also have a reduced threshold for frustration, with extensive reactivity to minor stimuli, which can also result in destructive physical features.[3]
Etiology
Register For Free And Read The Full Article
Search engine and full access to all medical articles- 10 free questions in your specialty
- Free CME/CE Activities
- Free daily question in your email
- Save favorite articles to your dashboard
- Emails offering discounts
Learn more about a Subscription to StatPearls Point-of-Care
Etiology
A hamartoma is a discrete lesion that resembles a neoplasm but often arises from an errant organ and contains atypical portions of tissue elements.[11] Hypothalamic hamartomas are rare congenital benign tumors that contain atypical portions of neuronal tissue elements.[12]
Hypothalamic hamartoma develops in the fifth to sixth week of gestation and appears in or around the hypothalamus, arising from infundibular recess and mammillary bodies. There is a theory that a defect in the fetal development of the hypothalamus results in the development of a tumor. Pathologically, hypothalamic hamartoma consists of mature neurons and glial cells ranging from 10 to 30 mm.[13]
The cause of hypothalamic hamartoma remains unknown. Cases are usually sporadic, with no identified family history, and the patient remains the only affected individual.[14] However, hypothalamic hamartomas are also associated with rare genetic disorders such as Pallister-Hall syndrome. Pallister-Hall syndrome is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by a mutation to the GLI3 gene, which classically presents with hypothalamic hamartoma and polydactyly.[15]
Epidemiology
The estimated prevalence of hypothalamic hamartoma with epilepsy is 1 case per 50000 to 100000 in children and adolescents.[11] The prevalence of hypothalamic hamartoma with only precocious puberty remains unclear. For hypothalamic hamartomas with epilepsy, males are at a slightly higher risk than females, with a ratio of 1.3 to 1.[16] Hypothalamic hamartomas occur worldwide with no specific geographic concentration of cases. The current thinking is that all ethnic groups are at equal risk, with no identified maternal risk factor or fetal exposures.
History and Physical
The clinical presentation of hypothalamic hamartomas depends on their attachment region to the hypothalamus.[12] Clinically, hypothalamic hamartomas present as 2 recognized subtypes: parahypothalamic and intrahypothalamic hamartomas.
Parahypothalmic hamartomas, also known as pedunculated, occur in the anterior hypothalamus, arising from the inferior surface of the hypothalamus, tuber cinereum. This subtype of hypothalamic hamartoma is associated with central precocious puberty.[4] Central precocious puberty associated with hypothalamic hamartomas starts early at an average age of 3.7 years in boys and 2.5 years in girls.[17]
Conversely, intrahypothalamic hamartomas, also know as ‘sessile’ occur in the posterior hypothalamus with an attachment level at the mamillary bodies.[2] Intrahypothalamic hamartomas are associated with gelastic seizures, epilepsy, cognitive impairment, and psychiatric symptoms.[3][18] Gelastic seizures are rare forms of seizure characterized by inappropriate smiling, giggling, or laughter associated with video electroencephalogram (EEG) changes and unrelated to external or interpersonal stimulation.[19] These seizures classically occur in infancy with increasing frequency and periodicity.[20] The mean age of presentation of gelastic seizures is 2.8 years, with the age of onset ranging from 1 month to 15 years. Gelastic seizures can be a precursor to other seizure types, cognitive deterioration, and behavioral abnormalities. The clinical spectrum of hypothalamic hamartoma-associated epilepsy ranges from sporadic and easily controlled partial seizures to seizures partially responsive to epileptic drugs and a catastrophic course that requires surgical intervention.[21][22]
Cognitive impairment can present as language delay with learning disabilities. Behavioral disorders are associated more commonly with hypothalamic hamartomas and gelastic seizures. These include attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (75%), aggressiveness, anxiety, oppositional defiant disorders (83.3%), and conduct disorders (33.3%).[11] Other behavioral disorders include rage, temper tantrums, and violence. Anxiety and mood disorders ( 8.3% to 25%) can also present as phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder, avoidant disorder, major depression, and dysthymia.
Patients with gelastic seizures present with affective aggression. The definition of affective aggression is being out of control, damaging one's property, physical harm to oneself, being aggressive without a purpose, being aggressive with stronger children when aggressive, and expressing remorse after aggression. Some children also present with predatory aggression. Predatory aggression includes the ability to control one's behavior when aggressive, protect oneself when aggressive, fight with weaker children, and try to get something out of being aggressive. More commonly, patients with hypothalamic hamartomas and gelastic seizures support affective aggression. These aggressive episodes arise suddenly and are not motivated by ill will towards the victims.[11]
Other predictive factors associated with an increased likelihood of aggression include male gender, the presence of intellectual disability, younger age at the time of first seizure, and multiple seizures. Postulates are that seizure activity in patients with hypothalamic hamartoma is a contributing factor to neurobehavioural deficits. The causes of rage and aggression are poorly understood but are thought to be influenced by gender and hormonal dynamics.[23]
Evaluation
Since hypothalamic hamartomas present with a plethora of psychiatric symptoms, these patients need a thorough neuropsychiatric evaluation process. Diagnostic tools can be useful, including the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V) and the Overt Aggression Scale.[24] Other aggression scales, such as the Vitiello Aggression Scale, differentiate affective and predatory aggression.[25] Head magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) confirms the presence of hypothalamic hamartoma. MRI is the primary diagnostic tool for hypothalamic hamartomas, as surgical specimens are difficult to obtain.[26] Central precocious puberty may be caused by excessive secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the lesion.[27]
Child and adolescent psychiatrists frequently have to evaluate youth presenting with rage and anger. Distinguishing between predatory and affective aggression at this time is very important. Also, if the patient presents with a history of inappropriate smiling or giggling, this should alert the psychiatrists that gelastic epilepsy could be present, and the patient should obtain a referral for a thorough neurological assessment. Gelastic seizures often fail to demonstrate EEG changes; therefore, a video EEG is recommended.[28] Video EEG captures the gelastic seizure with head deviation and twitching.[29] Further, if the patient presents with findings of aggression and precocious puberty, a complete, thorough assessment by an endocrinologist is also required.
Treatment / Management
The gelastic seizures associated with hypothalamic hamartomas are complicated to treat or manage.[30] These seizures are refractory to medical treatment, and reports exist of surgical attempts to control the seizures. However, in some instances, the surrounding hypothalamic tissue interferes with safe surgical access, so alternative modalities include stereotactically targeted radiation therapy or radiofrequency lesioning.[31] Recent studies have reported a complete resection is not necessary and disconnecting the tumor is sufficient for seizure control, therefore less invasive modalities are increasingly being used. The main disadvantages of the non-surgical approach are a delayed effect on seizure control, which usually takes about 6 months, radiation damage to the surrounding vital structures such as the optic tract, and lower efficacy of seizure control in contrast to the open surgical approach.[13](B3)
If precocious puberty is the isolated finding with the hamartoma, then medical management is focused on suppressing the pubertal development. An example of this treatment plan would be the administration of gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog.[32] Long-acting LH-RH analogs suppress gonadotrophin secretion. Therefore, treatment with LH-RH analogs is the first choice.[26] However, if this does not help, then surgical removal is recommended. In contrast to intrahypothalamic hamartomas, parahypothalamic hamartomas are relatively easily accessible for surgical removal.[32](B2)
There are no proposed treatment algorithms for behavioral and psychiatric symptoms in patients with hypothalamic hamartoma.[12] There is also, as yet, no documented, specific pharmacotherapy for psychiatric symptoms in patients with hypothalamic hamartomas.[3] Behavioral difficulties are addressable through parent management training (PMT). This training involves teaching parents strategies to increase prosocial skills and decrease disruptive behaviors in children. An example of PMT is a brief behavioral intervention program. This program demonstrates successful results in treating symptoms of ADHD and disruptive behaviors in children with parahypothalamic hamartomas.[33](A1)
Behavioral symptoms are common in children with epilepsy. Often, parents report their children being more restless and irritable before seizure onset. Controlling seizures ultimately controls aggressive behavior in children. The literature describes this phenomenon in several places. Surgical removal of hypothalamic hamartoma is the more definitive treatment in controlling seizures. After surgical removal, 3 patients became seizure-free, 8 had over 90% reduction in seizures, and all of these eleven patients experienced a dramatic improvement in behavior and cognition.[21](B3)
Differential Diagnosis
Hypothalamic hamartomas are unique in their presentation with gelastic seizures. Other tumors arising from the ventral hypothalamus, such as craniopharyngiomas, astrocytomas, and optic nerve gliomas, do not usually present with gelastic seizures. However, these tumors can be associated with endocrine dysfunction and are very rarely associated with central precocious puberty. The differential diagnosis for incessant laughter is broad; however, a thorough history and physical exam, along with neuroimaging, video EEG, and psychiatric screening, can aid in the diagnosis of gelastic seizures with hypothalamic hamartomas.[29]
Prognosis
Prognosis is dependent on numerous factors such as the size, location, early manifestations of gelastic seizures, behavioral and cognitive impairment, and central precocious puberty. Large sessile hypothalamic hamartomas are likely to have all of the above features.
The success rate for gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist therapy is high in treating central precocious puberty.[34] Monitoring pubertal progression is all that is required, however regular testing for luteinizing hormone (LH) and sex steroids can further confirm treatment efficacy.[17] When puberty is desirable, the clinician can discontinue hormone therapy.[34] Long-term outcomes of girls and boys treated with GnRH therapy appear favorable.[35][36]
Gelastic seizures are quite distressing for the patient and the family. As they tend to be refractory to antiepileptic drugs, surgery is the predominant treatment choice. Neurosurgical techniques tend to resolve the symptoms rapidly in these patients. Early intervention is quite critical as this condition is progressive, with worsening cognitive and behavioral issues over time. The lesion is often inaccessible through an open approach; therefore, minimally invasive surgical or radiological therapies are options, but with variable outcomes. Only 50% of the patients achieved a cure by endoscopic disconnection of hypothalamic hamartomas.[37] This partial improvement with the persistence of seizures in patients suggests that over time, a secondary independent epileptogenic area develops in the cortex.[38] A short window of under 10 years has been proposed from epilepsy onset to surgical treatment in hypothalamic hamartoma to prevent the development of independent stage and cure epilepsy.[39]
Complications
Complications with open surgical procedures are high.[13] Various minimally invasive and non-surgical methods have been used to treat hypothalamic hamartoma. The main disadvantage of non-surgical methods such as gamma knife radiation is the delayed effect on seizure control, which can take 6 months or longer. A recent trial reported that 37% of patients were seizure-free after gamma knife radiation therapy, and 60% had a dramatic improvement in symptoms.[31] Radiation damage can also occur to the surrounding vital structures, such as the optic tract. Possible complications associated with surgical resection include pituitary endocrinopathies and hypothalamic obesity syndrome.[17] As hypothalamic hamartoma is a rare disease disorder, complications, and adverse effects remain unknown.
Deterrence and Patient Education
Patients and families require education regarding gelastic seizures, as these can be quite challenging to manage. Parents should understand the potential for rage behaviors, mood disorders, and aggression in patients with hypothalamic hamartoma and epilepsy — approximately 43% of patients present with significant aggression.[3] Parents should also receive counsel on the progressive nature of the disease with worsening seizures, cognitive decline, and behavioral deterioration.[12] Regular follow-up by an interprofessional team of professionals is necessary to manage this disease successfully.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
The management of hypothalamic hamartomas is best done chiefly with an interprofessional team because of its rarity and vague symptoms. Clinicians need to be aware that besides seizures, these lesions can present with psychiatric symptoms in the form of rage behaviors, mood disorders, and aggression.[7] There is a general lack of clinical data on such significant comorbidity. Risk factors for psychiatric comorbidity in patients with hypothalamic hamartoma are unknown. Predictors for the increased possibility of aggression are male gender, intellectual disability, early age at the onset of seizure activity, and multiple seizures instead of only gelastic seizures. Atypical presentations of mood or psychiatric symptoms should call for imaging studies of the brain.
Early seizure onset is also associated with cognitive impairment. The neurobiology of rage and aggression is poorly understood but is mostly under the influence of hormonal dynamics such as cortisol and testosterone.[40] Patients with hypothalamic hamartoma present with a broad spectrum of psychiatric symptoms. It is challenging to categorize based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V), as symptoms from all categories can be involved virtually. Therefore, hypothalamic hamartoma is classified as purely symptomatic.
Psychiatric outcomes improve after surgery in patients with hypothalamic hamartoma with epilepsy. There is no current available pharmacotherapy for psychiatric symptoms recommended at this time, and further clinical trials are needed to explore this possibility.
Despite the absence of a pharmaceutical standard of treatment, when pharmaceutical therapy is the initial treatment option, the pharmacist must be involved, verify dosing, and assist the team by performing medication reconciliation. Clinicians can monitor the effectiveness of treatment and are also in the best position to observe for adverse medication effects and assist in helping if a surgical option is chosen. All providers are responsible for educating and counseling the patient's family regarding gelastic seizures. Only with a full, interprofessional team approach can outcomes be directed optimally.
References
Coons SW, Rekate HL, Prenger EC, Wang N, Drees C, Ng YT, Chung SS, Kerrigan JF. The histopathology of hypothalamic hamartomas: study of 57 cases. Journal of neuropathology and experimental neurology. 2007 Feb:66(2):131-41 [PubMed PMID: 17278998]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceParvizi J, Le S, Foster BL, Bourgeois B, Riviello JJ, Prenger E, Saper C, Kerrigan JF. Gelastic epilepsy and hypothalamic hamartomas: neuroanatomical analysis of brain lesions in 100 patients. Brain : a journal of neurology. 2011 Oct:134(Pt 10):2960-8. doi: 10.1093/brain/awr235. Epub [PubMed PMID: 21975589]
Killeen Z, Bunch R, Kerrigan JF. Psychiatric comorbidity with hypothalamic hamartoma: Systematic review for predictive clinical features. Epilepsy & behavior : E&B. 2017 Aug:73():126-130. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2017.05.019. Epub 2017 Jul 18 [PubMed PMID: 28636978]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceChan YM, Fenoglio-Simeone KA, Paraschos S, Muhammad L, Troester MM, Ng YT, Johnsonbaugh RE, Coons SW, Prenger EC, Kerrigan JF Jr, Seminara SB. Central precocious puberty due to hypothalamic hamartomas correlates with anatomic features but not with expression of GnRH, TGFalpha, or KISS1. Hormone research in paediatrics. 2010:73(5):312-9. doi: 10.1159/000308162. Epub 2010 Apr 14 [PubMed PMID: 20389100]
Valdueza JM, Cristante L, Dammann O, Bentele K, Vortmeyer A, Saeger W, Padberg B, Freitag J, Herrmann HD. Hypothalamic hamartomas: with special reference to gelastic epilepsy and surgery. Neurosurgery. 1994 Jun:34(6):949-58; discussion 958 [PubMed PMID: 8084405]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceArzimanoglou AA, Hirsch E, Aicardi J. Hypothalamic hamartoma and epilepsy in children: illustrative cases of possible evolutions. Epileptic disorders : international epilepsy journal with videotape. 2003 Dec:5(4):187-99 [PubMed PMID: 14975787]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceBerkovic SF, Andermann F, Melanson D, Ethier RE, Feindel W, Gloor P. Hypothalamic hamartomas and ictal laughter: evolution of a characteristic epileptic syndrome and diagnostic value of magnetic resonance imaging. Annals of neurology. 1988 May:23(5):429-39 [PubMed PMID: 3389755]
Prigatano GP, Wethe JV, Gray JA, Wang N, Chung S, Ng YT, Prenger E, Kerrigan JF. Intellectual functioning in presurgical patients with hypothalamic hamartoma and refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy & behavior : E&B. 2008 Jul:13(1):149-55. doi: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2008.02.016. Epub 2008 Mar 28 [PubMed PMID: 18375185]
Frattali CM, Liow K, Craig GH, Korenman LM, Makhlouf F, Sato S, Biesecker LG, Theodore WH. Cognitive deficits in children with gelastic seizures and hypothalamic hamartoma. Neurology. 2001 Jul 10:57(1):43-6 [PubMed PMID: 11445626]
Savard G, Bhanji NH, Dubeau F, Andermann F, Sadikot A. Psychiatric aspects of patients with hypothalamic hamartoma and epilepsy. Epileptic disorders : international epilepsy journal with videotape. 2003 Dec:5(4):229-34 [PubMed PMID: 14975791]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceWeissenberger AA, Dell ML, Liow K, Theodore W, Frattali CM, Hernandez D, Zametkin AJ. Aggression and psychiatric comorbidity in children with hypothalamic hamartomas and their unaffected siblings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2001 Jun:40(6):696-703 [PubMed PMID: 11392348]
Veendrick-Meekes MJ, Verhoeven WM, van Erp MG, van Blarikom W, Tuinier S. Neuropsychiatric aspects of patients with hypothalamic hamartomas. Epilepsy & behavior : E&B. 2007 Sep:11(2):218-21 [PubMed PMID: 17606410]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceKumar R, Yadav J, Sahu JK, Tripathi M, Ahuja C, Dayal D. Episodes of prolonged "trance-like state" in an infant with hypothalamic hamartoma. Annals of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism. 2019 Mar:24(1):55-59. doi: 10.6065/apem.2019.24.1.55. Epub 2019 Mar 31 [PubMed PMID: 30943681]
Kerrigan JF, Parsons A, Tsang C, Simeone K, Coons S, Wu J. Hypothalamic hamartoma: Neuropathology and epileptogenesis. Epilepsia. 2017 Jun:58 Suppl 2():22-31. doi: 10.1111/epi.13752. Epub [PubMed PMID: 28591478]
Mahtabfar A, Buckley N, Murphy S, Danish S, Marshall I. Pallister-Hall Syndrome Presenting in Adolescence. Case reports in genetics. 2019:2019():6845836. doi: 10.1155/2019/6845836. Epub 2019 Mar 18 [PubMed PMID: 31011455]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceZúñiga OF, Tanner SM, Wild WO, Mosier HD Jr. Hamartoma of CNS associated with precocious puberty. American journal of diseases of children (1960). 1983 Feb:137(2):127-33 [PubMed PMID: 6336889]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceHarrison VS, Oatman O, Kerrigan JF. Hypothalamic hamartoma with epilepsy: Review of endocrine comorbidity. Epilepsia. 2017 Jun:58 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):50-59. doi: 10.1111/epi.13756. Epub [PubMed PMID: 28591479]
Debeneix C, Bourgeois M, Trivin C, Sainte-Rose C, Brauner R. Hypothalamic hamartoma: comparison of clinical presentation and magnetic resonance images. Hormone research. 2001:56(1-2):12-8 [PubMed PMID: 11815722]
Go T. ACTH treatment for gelastic seizures. Archives of disease in childhood. 1999 Sep:81(3):278 [PubMed PMID: 10532927]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceTéllez-Zenteno JF, Serrano-Almeida C, Moien-Afshari F. Gelastic seizures associated with hypothalamic hamartomas. An update in the clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. 2008 Dec:4(6):1021-31 [PubMed PMID: 19337448]
Palmini A, Chandler C, Andermann F, Costa Da Costa J, Paglioli-Neto E, Polkey C, Rosenblatt B, Montes J, Martínez JV, Farmer JP, Sinclair B, Aronyk K, Paglioli E, Coutinho L, Raupp S, Portuguez M. Resection of the lesion in patients with hypothalamic hamartomas and catastrophic epilepsy. Neurology. 2002 May 14:58(9):1338-47 [PubMed PMID: 12011278]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceStriano S, Striano P, Sarappa C, Boccella P. The clinical spectrum and natural history of gelastic epilepsy-hypothalamic hamartoma syndrome. Seizure. 2005 Jun:14(4):232-9 [PubMed PMID: 15911357]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceCleverley K, Szatmari P, Vaillancourt T, Boyle M, Lipman E. Developmental trajectories of physical and indirect aggression from late childhood to adolescence: sex differences and outcomes in emerging adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2012 Oct:51(10):1037-51. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2012.07.010. Epub 2012 Sep 5 [PubMed PMID: 23021479]
Knoedler DW. The Modified Overt Aggression Scale. The American journal of psychiatry. 1989 Aug:146(8):1081-2 [PubMed PMID: 2750991]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceVitiello B, Behar D, Hunt J, Stoff D, Ricciuti A. Subtyping aggression in children and adolescents. The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences. 1990 Spring:2(2):189-92 [PubMed PMID: 2136074]
Arita K, Ikawa F, Kurisu K, Sumida M, Harada K, Uozumi T, Monden S, Yoshida J, Nishi Y. The relationship between magnetic resonance imaging findings and clinical manifestations of hypothalamic hamartoma. Journal of neurosurgery. 1999 Aug:91(2):212-20 [PubMed PMID: 10433309]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceJung H, Parent AS, Ojeda SR. Hypothalamic hamartoma: a paradigm/model for studying the onset of puberty. Endocrine development. 2005:8():81-93. doi: 10.1159/000084095. Epub [PubMed PMID: 15722619]
Troester M, Haine-Schlagel R, Ng YT, Chapman K, Chung S, Drees C, Prenger E, Rekate H, Kerrigan JF. EEG and video-EEG seizure monitoring has limited utility in patients with hypothalamic hamartoma and epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2011 Jun:52(6):1137-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1528-1167.2011.03095.x. Epub 2011 May 13 [PubMed PMID: 21569021]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceBeckwith NL, Khil JC, Teng J, Liow KK, Smith A, Luna J. Inappropriate Laughter and Behaviours: How, What, and Why? Case of an Adult with Undiagnosed Gelastic Seizure with Hypothalamic Hamartoma. Hawai'i journal of medicine & public health : a journal of Asia Pacific Medicine & Public Health. 2018 Dec:77(12):319-324 [PubMed PMID: 30533284]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceParrent AG. Stereotactic radiofrequency ablation for the treatment of gelastic seizures associated with hypothalamic hamartoma. Case report. Journal of neurosurgery. 1999 Nov:91(5):881-4 [PubMed PMID: 10541251]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceRégis J, Scavarda D, Tamura M, Nagayi M, Villeneuve N, Bartolomei F, Brue T, Dafonseca D, Chauvel P. Epilepsy related to hypothalamic hamartomas: surgical management with special reference to gamma knife surgery. Child's nervous system : ChNS : official journal of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery. 2006 Aug:22(8):881-95 [PubMed PMID: 16807727]
Starceski PJ, Lee PA, Albright AL, Migeon CJ. Hypothalamic hamartomas and sexual precocity. Evaluation of treatment options. American journal of diseases of children (1960). 1990 Feb:144(2):225-8 [PubMed PMID: 2105631]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceFein RH, Banks GG, Gragert MN, Axelrad ME. Brief Behavioral Intervention for Disruptive Behavior in a Child with a Hypothalamic Hamartoma: A Case Report. Journal of clinical psychology in medical settings. 2019 Dec:26(4):507-515. doi: 10.1007/s10880-018-9592-5. Epub [PubMed PMID: 30470962]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceMahachoklertwattana P, Kaplan SL, Grumbach MM. The luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone-secreting hypothalamic hamartoma is a congenital malformation: natural history. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 1993 Jul:77(1):118-24 [PubMed PMID: 8325933]
Feuillan PP, Jones JV, Barnes KM, Oerter-Klein K, Cutler GB Jr. Boys with precocious puberty due to hypothalamic hamartoma: reproductive axis after discontinuation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog therapy. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2000 Nov:85(11):4036-8 [PubMed PMID: 11095429]
Feuillan PP, Jones JV, Barnes K, Oerter-Klein K, Cutler GB Jr. Reproductive axis after discontinuation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone analog treatment of girls with precocious puberty: long term follow-up comparing girls with hypothalamic hamartoma to those with idiopathic precocious puberty. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 1999 Jan:84(1):44-9 [PubMed PMID: 9920060]
Schwartz TH. Treatment options for hypothalamic hamartomas--no laughing matter. Epilepsy currents. 2007 May-Jun:7(3):72-4 [PubMed PMID: 17520079]
Régis J, Carron R, Bartolomei F, Chauvel P. Seeking new paradigms in epilepsy: stereotactic radiosurgery. Clinical neurosurgery. 2012:59():59-69 [PubMed PMID: 22960514]
Scholly J, Staack AM, Kahane P, Scavarda D, Régis J, Hirsch E, Bartolomei F. Hypothalamic hamartoma: Epileptogenesis beyond the lesion? Epilepsia. 2017 Jun:58 Suppl 2():32-40. doi: 10.1111/epi.13755. Epub [PubMed PMID: 28591482]
Rosell DR, Siever LJ. The neurobiology of aggression and violence. CNS spectrums. 2015 Jun:20(3):254-79. doi: 10.1017/S109285291500019X. Epub 2015 May 4 [PubMed PMID: 25936249]