Back To Search Results

Geriatric Cervical Spine Injury

Editor: Matthew Varacallo Updated: 8/4/2023 5:20:22 PM

Introduction

According to the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, there are 12 injury-related emergency department visits for every 100 persons over the age of 65 annually. Geriatric patients account for a quarter of trauma admissions nationally. Cervical spine injuries are relatively common in the elderly population.[1] These injuries are associated with high morbidity and mortality rates.[2]

The percentage of elderly patients with trauma has been on the rise and will continue to increase into the ensuing decades.[2][3][4][5] Clinicians are cautioned to maintain a heightened index of clinical suspicion to rule out cervical pathology even in the setting of low-energy mechanisms of injury, for example, ground level falls. Often geriatric traumas present with confounding variables such as baseline dementia, auditory and visual impairment, and inherent difficulty when cooperating with the acute physical examination.[6][7]

Etiology

Register For Free And Read The Full Article
Get the answers you need instantly with the StatPearls Clinical Decision Support tool. StatPearls spent the last decade developing the largest and most updated Point-of Care resource ever developed. Earn CME/CE by searching and reading articles.
  • Dropdown arrow Search engine and full access to all medical articles
  • Dropdown arrow 10 free questions in your specialty
  • Dropdown arrow Free CME/CE Activities
  • Dropdown arrow Free daily question in your email
  • Dropdown arrow Save favorite articles to your dashboard
  • Dropdown arrow Emails offering discounts

Learn more about a Subscription to StatPearls Point-of-Care

Etiology

Most geriatric cervical spine injuries are secondary to falls (greater than 60%). They can, however, occur secondary to any traumatic mechanism (for example, motor vehicle accidents, assault, forced hyperextension or hyperflexion injuries). Geriatric patients have a higher risk of low-energy injuries secondary to, but not limited to, osteoporosis, osteopenia, and a generalized decrease in the spinal columns physiologic protective capabilities secondary to decreases in total mobility and degenerative changes.[8][7]

Epidemiology

One-third of geriatric patients sustain falls each year, and 12% of elderly Americans present to emergency departments annually for injury-related visits. Given that people over age 65 are the fastest growing segment of the population, this represents a significant burden of disease.

While the epidemiology of traumatic cervical spine fractures is not well-known or established for the general adult population, the incidence rate demonstrates a bimodal class pattern by age groups. These injuries first reach a peak incidence rate in patients age 15 to 54 years of age, and the second peak incidence is reached between ages 65 to 80 years of age.[9]  Cervical fractures have a 2.6% to 4.7% prevalence rate in patients older than 65 years old, and most studies cite at least a 50% (or greater)  incidence rate of low energy or ground level falls as the source of these cervical spine fractures.[10][11]

Pathophysiology

The cervical spinal column is composed of seven stacked vertebrae with intervening intervertebral disks. The spinal column is made of 2 columns: (1) an anterior column comprising vertebral bodies, discs, the stabilizing anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments, and (2) a posterior column, composed of the pedicles, laminae, facets, spinous processes, and stabilizing ligamentum flavum, capsular ligaments, and nuchal ligament complex. The cervical column has considerable mobility, allowing flexion, extension, and rotation. This makes the cervical spine prone to injury. Spinal injuries are considered unstable if both the anterior and the posterior column are disrupted at the same level.

In the young cervical spine, the most mobile segment, and therefore the segment most prone to injury, is C4 to C7. As the cervical spine ages, it is believed that degenerative changes result in decreased mobility in the lower cervical spine, making C1 to C2 the most mobile segment, and therefore, the most prone to injury. It has also been noted that low-velocity mechanisms of injury (such as fall, as compared to motor vehicle crashes) are more likely to result in upper cervical spine injury than lower cervical spine injury, regardless of age. Older individuals are more likely to have low-velocity mechanisms, with falls being the most common cause of cervical spine injury. Therefore, it is not surprising that the most common cervical spine injury seen in geriatric patients is an injury at C2, followed by injury at C1.

Elderly patients may have other pathologies increasing the risk of cervical spine injury, including ankylosing spondylitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cervical canal stenosis. They are also more likely to have metastatic spinal tumors and decreased bone density related to aging. The presence of pre-existing cervical spine abnormalities increases the risk of spinal cord injuries in elderly patients, particularly central cord syndrome and anterior cord syndrome.

History and Physical

Most geriatric patients with cervical spine injury will relate a history of trauma. However, cervical spine injury may be secondary to a minor mechanism that the patient may not have considered worth reporting. For example, forceful pulling on the hand in the setting of spine tumor. In this population, it is also important to remember that cognitive decline is common in both patients coming from home and patients coming from facilities, and the history may be somewhat limited or incomplete. A high index of suspicion for occult trauma is important. The provider should attempt to obtain a history from witnesses and caregivers regarding the event.

It is important to consider the potential for an underlying medical reason for the presenting trauma. Geriatric patients may be involved in motor vehicle accidents or falls as a result of arrhythmia, stroke, dissection, infection, seizure, metabolic disturbance, hemorrhage, or polypharmacy. These patients often have both medical disease as well as traumatic injury, and both need careful evaluation.

The physical exam should be thorough, beginning with the ABCs and proceeding through a complete neurologic exam. The patient should be fully exposed and rolled to assess for other signs of injury/infection, and every joint should be ranged to avoid missing occult injury.

Evaluation

The best diagnostic test readily available to assess for cervical spine injury in the emergency setting is a CT scan. Plain radiographs are limited in the geriatric patient because of osteopenia and osteoarthritis. Further, the most commonly injured areas of the cervical spine in the geriatric patient (C2 and C1) are poorly visualized on plain films. Therefore, when a decision to image a geriatric patient is made, the provider should obtain a CT scan.

Since the overall incidence of injury to the spine is low, and CT scanning is costly and exposes patients to ionizing radiation, several validated decision rules provide guidance as to which patients can safely forego advanced imaging. The 2two most common decision rules used to clear the cervical spine are the Canadian C-spine Rule and NEXUS (National Emergency X-radiography Utilization Study). Unfortunately, the Canadian C-spine Rule mandates imaging of any patient age 65 or older and further requires the patient has a Glasgow coma score (GCS) of 15. This makes it useless in reducing imaging in the geriatric trauma patient.

The NEXUS decision rule (absence of focal neurologic deficit, absence of intoxication, absence of midline neck tenderness, and absence of distracting injury in a patient with normal alertness) has been validated in geriatric patients for detection of clinically important injuries. However, data are conflicting, and many providers are reluctant to use this decision rule in the geriatric patient. NEXUS also suffers from difficulty with reproducibility of results. "Normal alertness" and "absence of distracting injury," in particular, are subject to interpretation by the evaluating provider. One prospective study on geriatric patients used "baseline mental status" as a substitute for "normal alertness" and "signs of trauma to the head or neck" as a substitute for "distracting injury" and found NEXUS to be 100% sensitive in detection of cervical injury, but the incidence of injury in this study was low.[12][13]

The weight of the evidence supports clinical decision rule use to clear the geriatric cervical spine, but given that the geriatric trauma patient has double the risk of cervical spine injury as compared to younger patients, the provider should have a low threshold to image these patients. 

Geriatric patients with a cervical spine fracture have a high rate of fractures to other vertebrae in the spinal column. Therefore, diagnosis of a fracture in the cervical spine should prompt imaging of the spine in its entirety.[14][15][16][17][18][17]

Treatment / Management

Management of cervical spine injury in geriatric patients is controversial. Options for upper cervical spine injuries include rigid collar immobilization without reduction, halo cast immobilization with reduction, and surgical management. A metanalysis of these management strategies found no difference in morbidity, mortality, or complications, and non-union was common. Since patients often have other associated injuries, these patients should be managed by a  multidisciplinary team including trauma surgery, orthopedics, physical therapy, and medical doctors.[12](A1)

Differential Diagnosis

  • Acute torticollis
  • Cauda equina and conus medullaris syndrome
  • Cervical strain
  • Hanging injuries and strangulation
  • Neck trauma
  • Septic shock
  • Spinal cord infections
  • Spinal cord injuries
  • Spinal cord neoplasms
  • Thoracic outlet syndrome imaging
  • Vertebral artery dissection

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

An interprofessional approach to cervical spine injury in the elderly is recommended.

Unlike the younger patient, the management of cervical spine injury in the elderly patient remains controversial. Making the treatment more difficult is that many elderly patients also have numerous comorbidities. Thus, these patients are best managed by an interprofessional team that includes trauma surgery, orthopedics, physical therapy, and medical doctors. No matter what treatment approach is undertaken, one should consider the patient's age, comorbidity and potential complication of the procedure. Many elderly patients may not be candidates for surgery, and one also has to take into account the post-procedure quality of life.[12]

References


[1]

Bokhari AR, Sivakumar B, Sefton A, Lin JL, Smith MM, Gray R, Hartin N. Morbidity and mortality in cervical spine injuries in the elderly. ANZ journal of surgery. 2019 Apr:89(4):412-417. doi: 10.1111/ans.14875. Epub 2018 Oct 8     [PubMed PMID: 30294850]


[2]

Bank M, Gibbs K, Sison C, Kutub N, Paptheodorou A, Lee S, Stein A, Bloom O. Age and Other Risk Factors Influencing Long-Term Mortality in Patients With Traumatic Cervical Spine Fracture. Geriatric orthopaedic surgery & rehabilitation. 2018:9():2151459318770882. doi: 10.1177/2151459318770882. Epub 2018 May 3     [PubMed PMID: 29760965]


[3]

Varacallo M,Pizzutillo P, Osteopenia null. 2018 Jan     [PubMed PMID: 29763053]


[4]

Varacallo MA,Fox EJ, Osteoporosis and its complications. The Medical clinics of North America. 2014 Jul     [PubMed PMID: 24994054]


[5]

Varacallo MA,Fox EJ,Paul EM,Hassenbein SE,Warlow PM, Patients' response toward an automated orthopedic osteoporosis intervention program. Geriatric orthopaedic surgery     [PubMed PMID: 24319621]


[6]

Delcourt T,Bégué T,Saintyves G,Mebtouche N,Cottin P, Management of upper cervical spine fractures in elderly patients: current trends and outcomes. Injury. 2015 Jan     [PubMed PMID: 26528937]


[7]

Lomoschitz FM, Blackmore CC, Mirza SK, Mann FA. Cervical spine injuries in patients 65 years old and older: epidemiologic analysis regarding the effects of age and injury mechanism on distribution, type, and stability of injuries. AJR. American journal of roentgenology. 2002 Mar:178(3):573-7     [PubMed PMID: 11856676]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[8]

Denver D,Shetty A,Unwin D, Falls and Implementation of NEXUS in the Elderly (The FINE Study). The Journal of emergency medicine. 2015 Sep     [PubMed PMID: 26022935]


[9]

Yadollahi M,Paydar S,Ghaem H,Ghorbani M,Mousavi SM,Taheri Akerdi A,Jalili E,Niakan MH,Khalili HA,Haghnegahdar A,Bolandparvaz S, Epidemiology of Cervical Spine Fractures. Trauma monthly. 2016 Jul     [PubMed PMID: 27921020]


[10]

Golob JF Jr, Claridge JA, Yowler CJ, Como JJ, Peerless JR. Isolated cervical spine fractures in the elderly: a deadly injury. The Journal of trauma. 2008 Feb:64(2):311-5. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181627625. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 18301192]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[11]

Sethi RK, Kozin ED, Fagenholz PJ, Lee DJ, Shrime MG, Gray ST. Epidemiological survey of head and neck injuries and trauma in the United States. Otolaryngology--head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery. 2014 Nov:151(5):776-84. doi: 10.1177/0194599814546112. Epub 2014 Aug 19     [PubMed PMID: 25139950]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[12]

Tran J, Jeanmonod D, Agresti D, Hamden K, Jeanmonod RK. Prospective Validation of Modified NEXUS Cervical Spine Injury Criteria in Low-risk Elderly Fall Patients. The western journal of emergency medicine. 2016 May:17(3):252-7. doi: 10.5811/westjem.2016.3.29702. Epub 2016 May 5     [PubMed PMID: 27330655]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[13]

Morrison J, Jeanmonod R. Imaging in the NEXUS-negative patient: when we break the rule. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2014 Jan:32(1):67-70. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2013.08.062. Epub 2013 Oct 4     [PubMed PMID: 24094866]


[14]

Kanwar R,Delasobera BE,Hudson K,Frohna W, Emergency department evaluation and treatment of cervical spine injuries. Emergency medicine clinics of North America. 2015 May     [PubMed PMID: 25892721]


[15]

Daffner RH,Hackney DB, ACR Appropriateness Criteria on suspected spine trauma. Journal of the American College of Radiology : JACR. 2007 Nov     [PubMed PMID: 17964500]


[16]

Sadro CT, Sandstrom CK, Verma N, Gunn ML. Geriatric Trauma: A Radiologist's Guide to Imaging Trauma Patients Aged 65 Years and Older. Radiographics : a review publication of the Radiological Society of North America, Inc. 2015 Jul-Aug:35(4):1263-85. doi: 10.1148/rg.2015140130. Epub 2015 Jun 12     [PubMed PMID: 26065932]


[17]

Moser N, Lemeunier N, Southerst D, Shearer H, Murnaghan K, Sutton D, Côté P. Validity and reliability of clinical prediction rules used to screen for cervical spine injury in alert low-risk patients with blunt trauma to the neck: part 2. A systematic review from the Cervical Assessment and Diagnosis Research Evaluation (CADRE) Collaboration. European spine journal : official publication of the European Spine Society, the European Spinal Deformity Society, and the European Section of the Cervical Spine Research Society. 2018 Jun:27(6):1219-1233. doi: 10.1007/s00586-017-5301-6. Epub 2017 Sep 22     [PubMed PMID: 28940048]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[18]

Evans D,Vera L,Jeanmonod D,Pester J,Jeanmonod R, Application of National Emergency X-Ray Utilizations Study low-risk c-spine criteria in high-risk geriatric falls. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2015 Sep     [PubMed PMID: 26092674]