Calculators, Algorithms, Drug Interaction CheckersTools
Back To Search Results

Pulmonary Stenosis

Author: Joseph Heaton Author: Maria S. Horenstein Editor: Chris Kyriakopoulos Updated: 10/6/2024 3:01:45 PM

Introduction

Pulmonary stenosis is a relatively common cardiac defect that can occur in isolation or, more commonly, in combination with other congenital heart defects, such as tetralogy of Fallot. The obstruction may occur within the right ventricular outflow tract, at the pulmonary valve annulus or pulmonary valve leaflets, or within the main and branch pulmonary arteries. Although pulmonary stenosis occurs in isolation in 7% to 12% of patients, it is more commonly associated with other congenital heart defects, affecting 25% to 30% of patients. Symptomatic patients are generally those with moderate or severe pulmonary stenosis who typically experience dyspnea on exertion or associated fatigue, depending on the severity of the obstruction and cardiac compensatory reserve. In rare cases, patients may experience angina or sudden cardiac arrest. Significantly enlarged pulmonary artery aneurysms may cause angina by compressing the left main coronary artery.[1] 

The diagnosis of pulmonary stenosis is typically made using echocardiography. However, cardiac computed tomography (CCT) and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) are also used in cases where intervention is required to relieve right ventricular outflow obstruction.[2][3] In recent years, transcatheter approaches for treating pulmonary stenosis have become increasingly common. However, surgery may be necessary when the anatomy is unsuitable for percutaneous treatment. The severity of flow restriction across the pulmonary valve and the valve anatomy determines the appropriate treatment, guided by the recommendations of the American Heart Association (AHA) and the American College of Cardiology (ACC).[3]

Etiology

Register For Free And Read The Full Article
Get the answers you need instantly with the StatPearls Clinical Decision Support tool. StatPearls spent the last decade developing the largest and most updated Point-of Care resource ever developed. Earn CME/CE by searching and reading articles.
  • Dropdown arrow Search engine and full access to all medical articles
  • Dropdown arrow 10 free questions in your specialty
  • Dropdown arrow Free CME/CE Activities
  • Dropdown arrow Free daily question in your email
  • Dropdown arrow Save favorite articles to your dashboard
  • Dropdown arrow Emails offering discounts

Learn more about a Subscription to StatPearls Point-of-Care

Etiology

Pulmonary stenosis can occur as an isolated valvular lesion or be associated with congenital structural cardiac anomalies, including tetralogy of Fallot, tricuspid atresia, complete and corrected transposition of the great arteries, and double outlet right ventricle. Pulmonary stenosis can also be linked with genetic syndromes such as Noonan syndrome, which is most commonly caused by PTPN11 mutations but can also be caused by KRAS, SOS1, and RAF1 mutations.[4][5][6][7] Peripheral pulmonary stenosis is another form that can be associated with conditions such as Alagille syndrome, caused by a JAG1 mutation on chromosome 12q24, or less frequently, NOTCH2 mutations, and Williams-Beuren syndrome, caused by an ELN mutation in chromosome 7q11.23.[8][9] Lastly, maternal rubella syndrome is also a known cause of congenital valvular pulmonary stenosis, although it is not a genetic defect.[10][11] 

Infrequently, valvular pulmonary stenosis can manifest clinically during pregnancy in previously undiagnosed patients with pulmonary stenosis or patients suffering from an underlying carcinoid syndrome.[12][13] Acquired forms of pulmonary stenosis can also occur in patients with a history of rheumatic heart disease, previous cardiothoracic surgeries, or cardiac tumors such as pericardial sarcoma, teratoma thymoma, or Hodgkin disease.[14]

Epidemiology

Isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis accounts for 7% to 12% of congenital heart diseases.[15] Extracardiac and neurodevelopmental comorbidities affect approximately 56% of patients with pulmonary stenosis. In such cases, a molecular diagnosis is more common. For example, the PTPN11 mutation is identified in 50% of patients with pulmonary stenosis and Noonan syndrome.[7][16] Moreover, a familial form of nonsyndromic pulmonary stenosis has been described and is suspected to be related to GATA4 mutations. Pulmonary stenosis does not seem to have any gender predilection.[17] 

Pathophysiology

Types of Pulmonary Stenosis

Pulmonary stenosis is classified into 3 types based on the location of the obstruction—valvular, subvalvular, and supravalvular. The degree of obstruction can be mild, moderate, severe, or critical.[18][3]

Valvular pulmonary stenosis: Isolated pulmonary valve stenosis is a condition in which the pulmonary valve is affected by varying degrees of fibrosis, thickening, and commissural fusion, leading to restricted blood flow. This condition is typically congenital and is diagnosed in pediatric patients. However, in rare cases, it can occur in adults as a result of rheumatic heart disease or carcinoid syndrome.[19] 

Valvular pulmonary stenosis is the most common type. In this condition, the commissures of the valve are partially fused, and the leaflets are thin. This structural anomaly causes a dome-shaped or conical outlet during systole. In some cases, the pulmonary valve may be dysplastic, thickened, and without fusion. Patients with Noonan syndrome often have a hypoplastic pulmonary annulus and hypoplastic proximal pulmonary arteries. Bicuspid pulmonary valves are more commonly associated with tetralogy of Fallot, and other variations in leaflet quantities, such as quadricuspid valves, have also been reported.[20]

Subvalvular pulmonary stenosis: Subvalvular pulmonary stenosis is a cardiac defect that causes obstruction below the pulmonary valve in the infundibular region of the right ventricle. This condition occurs in patients with a double-chambered right ventricle and those with tetralogy of Fallot. In addition, subvalvular pulmonary stenosis may develop in 20% to 30% of patients with Noonan syndrome who have hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.[7] Secondary causes of subvalvular pulmonary stenosis can result from primary valvular stenosis, leading to right ventricular hypertrophy. In such cases, the secondary subvalvular pulmonary stenosis often regresses after a valvotomy or valvuloplasty.[21][22]

Subpravalvular pulmonary stenosis: Supravalvular pulmonary stenosis, also known as peripheral pulmonary stenosis, is a condition where there is an obstruction above the pulmonary valve. The restriction can occur in the main pulmonary artery, the distal branches of the pulmonary artery, or both places. Supravalvular pulmonary stenosis can be associated with structural defects such as tetralogy of Fallot, double-outlet right ventricle, transposition of the great arteries, and genetic syndromes, including Noonan, William, and Alagille syndromes.[23][24][25][26][27][28] Supravalvular pulmonary stenosis can also occur after surgical repair of the transposition of the great arteries.[29]

Degree of Obstruction

The severity of pulmonary stenosis can be determined using echocardiographic or transcatheter criteria. Stenosis can be classified as mild, moderate, severe, or critical as follows:

  • Mild stenosis: Peak gradient <36 mm Hg
  • Moderate stenosis: Peak gradient between 36 and 64 mm Hg
  • Severe stenosis: Peak gradient >64 mm Hg [3]
  • Critical stenosis: Observed in infants with inadequate anterograde blood flow through a very tight and small pulmonary valve or annulus. These patients require prostaglandin-E1 to keep the ductus arteriosus patent and allow blood flow to the lungs.[18]

History and Physical

Clinical Features

Most patients who have mild pulmonary stenosis are asymptomatic. Symptomatic patients are generally those with moderate or severe pulmonary stenosis who typically experience dyspnea on exertion or associated fatigue, depending on the severity of the obstruction and cardiac compensatory reserve.[1] Rarely patients can experience angina or sudden cardiac arrest. Significantly enlarged pulmonary artery aneurysms can cause angina through compression of the left main coronary artery.[30] In children and adults, the following auscultative findings might help assess the severity of valvular pulmonary stenosis obstruction (see Audio. Pulmonary Stenosis):

  • Mild pulmonary stenosis is characterized by a normal first heart sound (S1) followed by an ejection click. The intensity of the pulmonic component of the second heart sound (P2) ranges from normal to increased.
  • Moderate pulmonary stenosis is marked by S1 being present, but the ejection click becomes closer to S1. S2 is split with a soft P2 component, and the width of the splitting of S2 depends on the severity of the obstruction.
  • Severe pulmonary stenosis is indicated by an absent click or a click that occurs so close to S1 that it cannot be distinguished. A louder murmur is also noted. S2 is widely split, and the P2 component is extremely soft or inaudible due to a decreased flow across the pulmonary valve.[31]

Infants born with critical pulmonary stenosis may experience cyanosis due to right-to-left atrial shunting across a patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect. They may also show signs of systemic venous congestion caused by right ventricular dysfunction.[18] Progressive right ventricular dilatation can indicate the presence of an atrial septal defect, but decreased right ventricular compliance and increased right atrial pressure can also lead to cyanosis due to right-to-left shunting across the atrial septal defect. In severe cases of pulmonary stenosis, systemic venous congestion can occur.[30] In children or adults with moderate or severe pulmonary stenosis, additional cardiac findings may include a left parasternal heave due to right ventricular hypertrophy. The systolic ejection murmur may radiate to the back.[32] Reduced ventricular compliance can result in the presence of a fourth heart sound in severe cases of pulmonary stenosis.[33]

Evaluation

The evaluation of pulmonary stenosis is typically performed using echocardiography, as it usually provides adequate visualization of the pulmonary valve and surrounding structures.[34][35] In most cases, a transthoracic echocardiogram is sufficient. However, transesophageal echocardiography is used if suboptimal views or endocarditis is suspected.[36][37] Electrocardiographic criteria that support right ventricular hypertrophy correlate with the severity of the pulmonary stenosis. Mild pulmonary stenosis may show right axis deviation, whereas severe cases may show prominent R waves in V1 and aVR, and P-wave enlargement.[38]

Doppler studies using echocardiography provide flow gradients, which are used to grade the severity of the pulmonary stenosis. Guidelines from the European Association of Echocardiography, the American Society of Echocardiography, the AHA, the ACC, and the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) include the following severity categories: [34][35][39]

  • Mild stenosis: The peak Doppler gradient across the pulmonary valve is <36 mm Hg, or the Doppler jet velocity is <3 m/s.
  • Moderate stenosis: The peak Doppler gradient across the valve is between 36 and 64 mm Hg, or the Doppler jet velocity is between 3 and 4 m/sec.
  • Severe stenosis: The peak Doppler gradient across the valve is >64 mm Hg, or the Doppler jet velocity is >4 m/s.

Cardiac catheterization and pulmonary angiography are typically not required for diagnosing pulmonary stenosis. Echocardiography is effective and safe in most cases. However, CMR can be a suitable alternative in case of suboptimal echocardiographic windows or complicated anatomy.[40][41] CMR can also measure right ventricular volume, function, and pulmonary artery blood flow. In addition, fetal CMR can be used with echocardiography to understand cardiac anatomy and branch pulmonary artery anatomy better. CCT may be used if a patient cannot undergo CMR.[3] The sensitivity of plain radiography is insufficient to diagnose pulmonary stenosis. However, radiographic evidence of prominent pulmonary arteries or a prominent right heart border can support a diagnosis of pulmonary stenosis.[30]

Treatment / Management

Pulmonary Stenosis Management

The management of pulmonary stenosis is based on the severity of flow restriction across the pulmonary valve and the valve anatomy. The AHA and ACC have revised and updated guidelines for managing pulmonary stenosis.[36][42](A1)

Surveillance recommendations: The AHA and ACC provide the following monitoring guidelines:

  • Asymptomatic patients with a peak Doppler gradient <30 mm Hg can be followed up every 5 years with an electrocardiogram and Doppler echocardiography.
  • Asymptomatic patients with a peak Doppler gradient >30 mm Hg can be followed up with Doppler echocardiography every 2 to 5 years.

Balloon valvuloplasty: Balloon valvuloplasty is recommended for the following populations:

  • Asymptomatic patients with a domed pulmonary valve with a peak Doppler gradient >60 mm Hg.
  • Symptomatic patients, such as those with unexplained heart failure, cyanosis from an interatrial right to left shunting, or exercise intolerance, with a domed pulmonary valve with a peak Doppler gradient >50 mm Hg or a mean Doppler gradient >30 mm Hg.

Balloon valvuloplasty is not as effective in most dysplastic valves as in domed valves, thus making surgery the preferred option. However, in patients with dysplastic valves, balloon valvuloplasty may be reasonable in the following cases:

  • Asymptomatic patients with a dysplastic pulmonary valve and a peak Doppler gradient >60 mm Hg or a mean Doppler gradient >40 mm Hg
  • Symptomatic patients with a dysplastic pulmonary valve and a peak Doppler gradient >50 mm Hg or a mean Doppler gradient >30 mm Hg

Pulmonary valvuloplasty can be successful; reinterventions due to restenosis might be required. In addition, young age, low weight, small pulmonary annulus diameter, a higher initial systolic gradient across the pulmonary valve, increased right ventricular or systemic pressure ratio, and severe pulmonary stenosis are associated with a higher probability of moderate regurgitation after the valvotomy procedure.[43](B3)

Balloon valvuloplasty is not recommended in the following cases:

  • Asymptomatic patients with normal cardiac output and a Doppler peak instantaneous gradient <50 mm Hg.
  • Symptomatic patients with pulmonary stenosis and severe pulmonary regurgitation.
  • Symptomatic patients with a Doppler peak instantaneous gradient <30 mm Hg.

Surgical intervention: Surgical intervention is indicated in the following patients:

  • Moderate-to-severe valvular stenosis in symptomatic patients who are ineligible for or in whom balloon valvuloplasty was ineffective
  • Severe valvular stenosis with severe pulmonary regurgitation
  • Hypoplastic pulmonary annulus
  • Subvalvular stenosis
  • Supravalvular stenosis
  • Dysplastic pulmonary valves when there is associated severe tricuspid regurgitation and when a Maze procedure is required
  • Patients undergoing concurrent cardiac surgical procedures

Pulmonary artery balloon angioplasty with optional stent placement is an acceptable treatment for supravalvular and subvalvular pulmonary stenosis. 

Antibiotic prophylaxis: Antibiotic prophylaxis before dental procedures and vaginal delivery in patients with pulmonary stenosis is reasonable in the following cases:

  • A prosthetic cardiac valve or prosthetic material used for valve repair
  • Previous infective endocarditis
  • In the presence of other cyanotic lesions, including shunts or conduits

Antibiotic prophylaxis against infective endocarditis is not recommended for non-dental procedures such as esophagogastroduodenoscopy or colonoscopy in the absence of active infection.[30] In general, antibiotic prophylaxis is recommended for individuals with a history of infective endocarditis, those with biological or mechanical prosthetic valves, patients who have received intracardiac prosthetic material within the last 6 months, those with residual intracardiac shunts in the area of or near prosthetic material, and those suffering from cyanotic heart disease.[42](A1)

Critical Pulmonary Stenosis

Newborns with critical pulmonary stenosis may have near-pulmonary atresia, a ductal-dependent congenital heart defect in which survival depends on maintaining a patent ductus arteriosus to allow adequate pulmonary blood flow. As the patent ductus arteriosus closes, these patients become increasingly cyanotic, and without prostaglandin E1 infusion or ductal stenting, this lesion leads to hypoxemia and death. In the absence of a ventricular septal defect, the right ventricle is hypoplastic, severely hypertrophied and restrictive, and often inadequate to maintain cardiac output. This anatomic arrangement requires the enlargement of a restrictive patent foramen ovale or a small atrial septal defect to allow for the pulmonary and systemic venous return to flow into the subaortic ventricle. This arrangement functions as a single ventricle with mixing in the atria until further surgery or surgeries are performed to stabilize the circulation. An atrial septostomy or Rashkind procedure can be performed in the cardiac catheterization laboratory or at the bedside in the cardiac intensive care unit, using ultrasound guidance with or without fluoroscopy. Static ballooning or atrial stent placement is performed in the cardiac catheterization laboratory.[18][44]

Definitive surgical repair may not be possible if the right ventricle is severely hypoplastic, which might require a multi-staged single ventricle palliation. However, a one-and-a-half ventricle repair palliation can become the initial surgery for those whose right ventricles can hold some cardiac output. This approach is superior to the Fontan procedure as it provides pulsatile flow to the pulmonary circulation, avoiding the development of pulmonary arteriovenous malformations that can develop after the Glenn or the Fontan procedures. Conversion to a biventricular repair can be later attempted.[45][46] Most recently, in-utero pulmonary valvuloplasty in some fetuses with critical pulmonary stenosis or pulmonary valve atresia has allowed right ventricular growth. This intervention has increased the chances of postnatal biventricular circulation in fetuses otherwise predicted to require single-ventricle palliation.[47]

Differential Diagnosis

The differential diagnosis of pulmonary stenosis in infants includes:

  • Congenital heart defects with associated pulmonary stenosis, such as a double-chambered right ventricle, double-outlet right ventricle, absent pulmonary valve, tetralogy of Fallot, atrioventricular septal defect, atrial septal defect, and ventricular septal defect
  • Pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum
  • Ventricular septal defect 

In adult patients, differential diagnoses include:

  • Rheumatic valvular heart disease
  • Carcinoid heart disease
  • Pulmonary embolism
  • Right heart failure
  • Cardiac tumor
  • Cardiac sarcoma

Prognosis

The natural history of pulmonary stenosis depends on the degree of pulmonary valve stenosis or the anatomy of the affected vessels. Except for critical stenosis observed during the neonatal period, most patients with mild and even moderate pulmonary stenosis without an associated genetic syndrome or congenital heart defect can lead a typical life, remaining asymptomatic and having an excellent prognosis. However, some patients develop significant pulmonary stenosis and require intervention.[48][49]

Patients with dome-shaped pulmonary valves undergoing balloon valvuloplasty have a better prognosis compared to those with dysplastic valves.[50][51] Complications during balloon valvuloplasty are generally minor, including a vagal response, catheter-induced ventricular ectopy, right bundle branch block, and transient or permanent high-grade atrioventricular nodal block.[52] A rare but serious adverse effect in hypertrophic right ventricles is referred to as the suicidal right ventricle, where dynamic obstruction of the outflow tract causes a sudden drop in the pressure gradient across the pulmonary valve. This condition is a postprocedure life-threatening emergency that can be prevented using beta blockers before the intervention to decrease the risk of hypercontractility of the right ventricular outflow tract following valvuloplasty.[51][53] 

Most patients undergoing surgical revision experience improvements in their maximal exercise capacity, with only 15% to 20% requiring reintervention. Most surgical reinterventions are for significant pulmonary valve regurgitation. In these patients, if supraventricular tachycardia is present, it typically resolves after the reintervention.[54][55]

During pregnancy, patients with mild pulmonary stenosis might present with an asymptomatic systolic murmur; occasionally, they might have exercise intolerance. Pregnancy is well-tolerated unless the pulmonary stenosis is severe. Percutaneous valvuloplasty can be performed during pregnancy, although the need is unusual.[30]

Complications

Infective endocarditis in isolated pulmonary stenosis is rare. In children, most cases occur secondary to an anatomically abnormal pulmonary valve, such as in patients with Noonan syndrome. However, in adults, most cases are secondary to intravenous drug abuse.[56] Complications can occur in individuals who have moderate and severe pulmonary stenosis, including arrhythmias, typically premature atrial contractions, premature ventricular contractions, and ventricular couplets.[57][58]

Consultations

Suspected symptomatic pulmonary stenosis in an adult requires a consultation with an adult congenital cardiologist. For a pregnant patient with pulmonary stenosis, a high-risk maternal-fetal medicine specialist and an adult congenital cardiologist should be consulted, as the hemodynamic changes associated with pregnancy can exacerbate pulmonary stenosis symptoms. Consultation with a pediatric cardiologist is warranted for newborns experiencing symptoms of pulmonary stenosis. Depending on the severity, pediatric critical care may also be required.

Deterrence and Patient Education

Parents should receive education regarding treatments available for pediatric patients with pulmonary stenosis and possible complications. Adult patients, especially those planning to become pregnant, should be educated about the risks, complications, and outcomes since pregnancy can exacerbate their underlying condition. Genetic counseling should be sought to discuss the risks of congenital heart defects in the patient's future children.

Pearls and Other Issues

Athletic Participation in the Setting of Pulmonary Stenosis: American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology Scientific Statement

The care of athletes with pulmonary stenosis is guided by the following 2015 AHA/ACA recommendations:

  • Athletes with mild pulmonary stenosis, defined as a Doppler-derived peak instantaneous gradient <40 mm Hg and normal right ventricular function, can participate in all competitive sports. An annual reevaluation is recommended.
  • Athletes who received a pulmonary valvotomy or a balloon valvuloplasty and have achieved adequate relief of pulmonary stenosis with a gradient <40 mm Hg can also participate in all competitive sports.
  • Athletes with moderate, defined as Doppler-derived peak instantaneous gradient of 40 to 60 mm Hg or severe pulmonary stenosis with a gradient >60 mm Hg, can consider participation only in low-intensity class IA and IB sports. Class IA refers to low-static and low-dynamic sports such as bowling, golf, and yoga. Class IB includes low-static but moderately dynamic sports such as basketball, softball, table tennis, and volleyball.[59]
  • Athletes with severe pulmonary insufficiency and marked right ventricular enlargement can consider participation in low-intensity class IA and IB sports.[60]

In 2020, the European Association of Preventive Cardiology Group (EAPC) and the ESC's Section of Sports Cardiology and Exercise updated their exercise recommendations for adolescents and adults with congenital heart disease. The revised guidelines are now based on hemodynamic and electrophysiological parameters. Rather than focusing on specific anatomical defects, these parameters merge the patient's hemodynamic status with the common hemodynamic changes and cardiac remodeling that occur from long-term training in different sports. This personalized approach allows for tailored exercise recommendations. The hemodynamic parameters used for the exercise recommendations by the EAPC and the ESC include:

  • Ventricular function
  • Pulmonary artery pressure
  • Aortic dimensions
  • Presence of arrhythmias
  • Arterial O2 saturation at rest and during cardiopulmonary exercise testing

When all parameters are within normal limits, or there is mild ventricular hypertrophy or mild pressure or volume load, athletes can participate in all competitive sports. When one of the parameters is abnormal, the patient is restricted from endurance sports that have high hemodynamic demands and require high-volume training, such as cycling, running, rowing, cross-country skiing, and long-distance skating, or they are restricted to skill sports, such as golf, motor racing, sailing, scuba diving, table tennis, and ski jumping. Patients with marked structural, hemodynamic, or electrophysiologic abnormalities who are symptomatic are restricted to recreational activities.[61]

Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes

An interprofessional team approach is crucial for treating patients with pulmonary stenosis, ensuring comprehensive care and improved outcomes. Clinicians, advanced practitioners, nurses, pharmacists, and other healthcare professionals must collaborate, each contributing distinct yet complementary roles. Clinicians and advanced practitioners lead the diagnostic process and develop treatment plans, whereas nurses ensure continuity of care, monitor patient progress, and provide patient education. Pharmacists play a crucial role in managing medications, particularly for patients requiring anticoagulation or managing other comorbidities.

Interprofessional communication enables timely sharing of insights and updates, particularly when care involves complex transitions, such as pregnancy or neonatal care, where cardiologists, obstetricians, and pediatric specialists must collaborate. Clear care coordination ensures that patients receive appropriate interventions, whether in nutrition, mental health, or rehabilitation, whereas timely communication enhances patient safety and fosters better team performance. By focusing on patient-centered strategies and clearly defined roles, the team can optimize care and ensure the best outcomes for those with pulmonary stenosis.

Media


(Click Video to Play)

Pulmonic Stenosis

Contributed by Katherine Humphreys

References

[1]

Convertino VA, Wirt MD, Glenn JF, Lein BC. The Compensatory Reserve For Early and Accurate Prediction Of Hemodynamic Compromise: A Review of the Underlying Physiology. Shock (Augusta, Ga.). 2016 Jun:45(6):580-90. doi: 10.1097/SHK.0000000000000559. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 26950588]

[2]

Costantini P, Perone F, Siani A, Groenhoff L, Muscogiuri G, Sironi S, Marra P, Carriero S, Pavon AG, Guglielmo M. Multimodality Imaging of the Neglected Valve: Role of Echocardiography, Cardiac Magnetic Resonance and Cardiac Computed Tomography in Pulmonary Stenosis and Regurgitation. Journal of imaging. 2022 Oct 10:8(10):. doi: 10.3390/jimaging8100278. Epub 2022 Oct 10     [PubMed PMID: 36286372]

[3]

Marchini F, Meossi S, Passarini G, Campo G, Pavasini R. Pulmonary Valve Stenosis: From Diagnosis to Current Management Techniques and Future Prospects. Vascular health and risk management. 2023:19():379-390. doi: 10.2147/VHRM.S380240. Epub 2023 Jun 30     [PubMed PMID: 37416511]

[4]

Balzer D. Pulmonary Valve Replacement for Tetralogy of Fallot. Methodist DeBakey cardiovascular journal. 2019 Apr-Jun:15(2):122-132. doi: 10.14797/mdcj-15-2-122. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 31384375]

[5]

Hill G. Repair and follow-up of Tetralogy of Fallot with pulmonary stenosis. Congenital heart disease. 2013 Mar-Apr:8(2):174-7. doi: 10.1111/chd.12042. Epub 2013 Mar 1     [PubMed PMID: 23448360]

[6]

Anderson K, Cnota J, James J, Miller EM, Parrott A, Pilipenko V, Weaver KN, Shikany A. Prevalence of Noonan spectrum disorders in a pediatric population with valvar pulmonary stenosis. Congenital heart disease. 2019 Mar:14(2):264-273. doi: 10.1111/chd.12721. Epub 2018 Dec 16     [PubMed PMID: 30556322]

[7]

Lin AE, Basson CT, Goldmuntz E, Magoulas PL, McDermott DA, McDonald-McGinn DM, McPherson E, Morris CA, Noonan J, Nowak C, Pierpont ME, Pyeritz RE, Rope AF, Zackai E, Pober BR. Adults with genetic syndromes and cardiovascular abnormalities: clinical history and management. Genetics in medicine : official journal of the American College of Medical Genetics. 2008 Jul:10(7):469-94     [PubMed PMID: 18580689]

[8]

Vandriel SM, Li LT, She H, Wang JS, Gilbert MA, Jankowska I, Czubkowski P, Gliwicz-Miedzińska D, Gonzales EM, Jacquemin E, Bouligand J, Spinner NB, Loomes KM, Piccoli DA, D'Antiga L, Nicastro E, Sokal É, Demaret T, Ebel NH, Feinstein JA, Fawaz R, Nastasio S, Lacaille F, Debray D, Arnell H, Fischler B, Siew S, Stormon M, Karpen SJ, Romero R, Kim KM, Baek WY, Hardikar W, Shankar S, Roberts AJ, Evans HM, Jensen MK, Kavan M, Sundaram SS, Chaidez A, Karthikeyan P, Sanchez MC, Cavalieri ML, Verkade HJ, Lee WS, Squires JE, Hajinicolaou C, Lertudomphonwanit C, Fischer RT, Larson-Nath C, Mozer-Glassberg Y, Arikan C, Lin HC, Bernabeu JQ, Alam S, Kelly DA, Carvalho E, Ferreira CT, Indolfi G, Quiros-Tejeira RE, Bulut P, Calvo PL, Önal Z, Valentino PL, Desai DM, Eshun J, Rogalidou M, Dezsőfi A, Wiecek S, Nebbia G, Pinto RB, Wolters VM, Tamara ML, Zizzo AN, Garcia J, Schwarz K, Beretta M, Sandahl TD, Jimenez-Rivera C, Kerkar N, Brecelj J, Mujawar Q, Rock N, Busoms CM, Karnsakul W, Lurz E, Santos-Silva E, Blondet N, Bujanda L, Shah U, Thompson RJ, Hansen BE, Kamath BM, Global ALagille Alliance (GALA) Study Group. Natural history of liver disease in a large international cohort of children with Alagille syndrome: Results from the GALA study. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.). 2023 Feb 1:77(2):512-529. doi: 10.1002/hep.32761. Epub 2022 Oct 13     [PubMed PMID: 36036223]

[9]

Min S, Kinnear C, D'Alessandro LCA, Bouwmeester J, Yao R, Chiasson D, Keeley F, Mital S. Genetic Diagnosis and the Severity of Cardiovascular Phenotype in Patients With Elastin Arteriopathy. Circulation. Genomic and precision medicine. 2020 Dec:13(6):e002971. doi: 10.1161/CIRCGEN.120.002971. Epub 2020 Sep 22     [PubMed PMID: 32960096]

[10]

Yazigi A, De Pecoulas AE, Vauloup-Fellous C, Grangeot-Keros L, Ayoubi JM, Picone O. Fetal and neonatal abnormalities due to congenital rubella syndrome: a review of literature. The journal of maternal-fetal & neonatal medicine : the official journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians. 2017 Feb:30(3):274-278     [PubMed PMID: 27002428]

[11]

Khanra D, Shrivastava Y, Duggal B, Soni S. Congenital supravalvular and subvalvular pulmonary stenosis with hypoplastic pulmonary annulus associated with congenital rubella syndrome. BMJ case reports. 2019 Jul 10:12(7):. doi: 10.1136/bcr-2019-231008. Epub 2019 Jul 10     [PubMed PMID: 31296628]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[12]

Karimi A, Pourafshar N, Fudge JC. Pulmonary and tricuspid valvuloplasty in carcinoid heart disease. Catheterization and cardiovascular interventions : official journal of the Society for Cardiac Angiography & Interventions. 2018 Jun:91(7):E68-E71. doi: 10.1002/ccd.26615. Epub 2016 Dec 28     [PubMed PMID: 28029208]

[13]

Nguyen A, Schaff HV, Abel MD, Luis SA, Lahr BD, Halfdanarson TR, Connolly HM. Improving outcome of valve replacement for carcinoid heart disease. The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery. 2019 Jul:158(1):99-107.e2. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2018.09.025. Epub 2018 Oct 3     [PubMed PMID: 30527716]

[14]

Lip HTC, Huei TJ, Wahid AA, Vendargon SJ. A Rare Presentation of Anterior Mediastinal Teratoma Mimicking Valvular Heart Disease with A Systolic Murmur. The Eurasian journal of medicine. 2018 Jun:50(2):134-136. doi: 10.5152/eurasianjmed.2018.17388. Epub 2018 Jun 1     [PubMed PMID: 30002584]

[15]

Stephensen SS, Sigfusson G, Eiriksson H, Sverrisson JT, Torfason B, Haraldsson A, Helgason H. Congenital cardiac malformations in Iceland from 1990 through 1999. Cardiology in the young. 2004 Aug:14(4):396-401     [PubMed PMID: 15680046]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[16]

Weaver KN, Chen J, Shikany A, White PS, Prada CE, Gelb BD, Cnota JF, Pediatric Cardiac Genomics Consortium Investigators*. Prevalence of Genetic Diagnoses in a Cohort With Valvar Pulmonary Stenosis. Circulation. Genomic and precision medicine. 2022 Aug:15(4):e003635. doi: 10.1161/CIRCGEN.121.003635. Epub 2022 Jun 6     [PubMed PMID: 35666834]

[17]

DesJardin JT, Chikwe J, Hahn RT, Hung JW, Delling FN. Sex Differences and Similarities in Valvular Heart Disease. Circulation research. 2022 Feb 18:130(4):455-473. doi: 10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.319914. Epub 2022 Feb 17     [PubMed PMID: 35175844]

[18]

Khalil M, Jux C, Rueblinger L, Behrje J, Esmaeili A, Schranz D. Acute therapy of newborns with critical congenital heart disease. Translational pediatrics. 2019 Apr:8(2):114-126. doi: 10.21037/tp.2019.04.06. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 31161078]

[19]

Pathare P, Weyand M, Heim C. Double valve replacement in a case of Hedinger syndrome. Clinical case reports. 2023 Jan:11(1):e6836. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.6836. Epub 2023 Jan 19     [PubMed PMID: 36698512]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[20]

Linde LM, Turner SW, Sparkes RS. Pulmonary valvular dysplasia. A cardiofacial syndrome. British heart journal. 1973 Mar:35(3):301-4     [PubMed PMID: 4692662]

[21]

Kumar M, Turrentine MW, Rodefeld MD, Bell T, Brown JW. Right Ventricular Outflow Tract Reconstruction With a Polytetrafluoroethylene Monocusp Valve: A 20-Year Experience. Seminars in thoracic and cardiovascular surgery. 2016 Summer:28(2):463-470. doi: 10.1053/j.semtcvs.2016.05.003. Epub 2016 Jun 2     [PubMed PMID: 28043462]

[22]

Cheatham SL, Holzer RJ, Chisolm JL, Cheatham JP. The Medtronic Melody® transcatheter pulmonary valve implanted at 24-mm diameter--it works. Catheterization and cardiovascular interventions : official journal of the Society for Cardiac Angiography & Interventions. 2013 Nov 1:82(5):816-23. doi: 10.1002/ccd.24821. Epub 2013 Aug 12     [PubMed PMID: 23359563]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[23]

Kumar V, Mahajan S, Jaswal V, Thingnam SKS. Surgical outcome of isolated congenital supravalvular pulmonary stenosis: a case series. European heart journal. Case reports. 2019 Jun 1:3(2):. doi: 10.1093/ehjcr/ytz012. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 31449596]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[24]

Ayoub MD, Kamath BM. Alagille Syndrome: Diagnostic Challenges and Advances in Management. Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland). 2020 Nov 6:10(11):. doi: 10.3390/diagnostics10110907. Epub 2020 Nov 6     [PubMed PMID: 33172025]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[25]

McElhinney DB, Krantz ID, Bason L, Piccoli DA, Emerick KM, Spinner NB, Goldmuntz E. Analysis of cardiovascular phenotype and genotype-phenotype correlation in individuals with a JAG1 mutation and/or Alagille syndrome. Circulation. 2002 Nov 12:106(20):2567-74     [PubMed PMID: 12427653]

[26]

Bell JM, Considine EM, McCallen LM, Chatfield KC. The Prevalence of Noonan Spectrum Disorders in Pediatric Patients with Pulmonary Valve Stenosis. The Journal of pediatrics. 2021 Jul:234():134-141.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.03.050. Epub 2021 Mar 29     [PubMed PMID: 33794220]

[27]

Abumehdi M, Mehta C, Afifi ARSA, Yong SF, Chaudhari M, Bhole V, Dhillon R, Stumper O. Supravalvular pulmonary stenosis: A risk factor for reintervention in Noonan syndrome with pulmonary valve stenosis. Catheterization and cardiovascular interventions : official journal of the Society for Cardiac Angiography & Interventions. 2022 Apr:99(5):1538-1544. doi: 10.1002/ccd.30148. Epub 2022 Mar 9     [PubMed PMID: 35266270]

[28]

Yuan SM. Congenital heart defects in Williams syndrome. The Turkish journal of pediatrics. 2017:59(3):225-232. doi: 10.24953/turkjped.2017.03.001. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 29376566]

[29]

Michalak KW, Moll JA, Sobczak-Budlewska K, Moll M, Dryżek P, Moszura T, Szymczyk K, Moll JJ. Reoperations and catheter interventions in patients with transposition of the great arteries after the arterial switch operation. European journal of cardio-thoracic surgery : official journal of the European Association for Cardio-thoracic Surgery. 2017 Jan:51(1):34-42. doi: 10.1093/ejcts/ezw290. Epub 2016 Sep 11     [PubMed PMID: 27615267]

[30]

Warnes CA, Williams RG, Bashore TM, Child JS, Connolly HM, Dearani JA, del Nido P, Fasules JW, Graham TP Jr, Hijazi ZM, Hunt SA, King ME, Landzberg MJ, Miner PD, Radford MJ, Walsh EP, Webb GD. ACC/AHA 2008 Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Congenital Heart Disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to develop guidelines on the management of adults with congenital heart disease). Circulation. 2008 Dec 2:118(23):e714-833. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.190690. Epub 2008 Nov 7     [PubMed PMID: 18997169]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[31]

O'Meara D. Evaluation of Heart Murmurs in Children. JAMA pediatrics. 2023 Aug 1:177(8):874. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.1376. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 37358864]

[32]

Fitzgerald KP, Lim MJ. The pulmonary valve. Cardiology clinics. 2011 May:29(2):223-7. doi: 10.1016/j.ccl.2011.01.006. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 21459245]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[33]

Fathallah M, Krasuski RA. Pulmonic Valve Disease: Review of Pathology and Current Treatment Options. Current cardiology reports. 2017 Sep 16:19(11):108. doi: 10.1007/s11886-017-0922-2. Epub 2017 Sep 16     [PubMed PMID: 28916901]

[34]

Nishimura RA, Otto CM, Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Erwin JP 3rd, Guyton RA, O'Gara PT, Ruiz CE, Skubas NJ, Sorajja P, Sundt TM 3rd, Thomas JD, American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2014 AHA/ACC guideline for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2014 Jun 10:63(22):e57-185. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2014.02.536. Epub 2014 Mar 3     [PubMed PMID: 24603191]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[35]

Baumgartner H, Hung J, Bermejo J, Chambers JB, Evangelista A, Griffin BP, Iung B, Otto CM, Pellikka PA, Quiñones M, American Society of Echocardiography, European Association of Echocardiography. Echocardiographic assessment of valve stenosis: EAE/ASE recommendations for clinical practice. Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography : official publication of the American Society of Echocardiography. 2009 Jan:22(1):1-23; quiz 101-2. doi: 10.1016/j.echo.2008.11.029. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 19130998]

[36]

Warnes CA, Williams RG, Bashore TM, Child JS, Connolly HM, Dearani JA, Del Nido P, Fasules JW, Graham TP Jr, Hijazi ZM, Hunt SA, King ME, Landzberg MJ, Miner PD, Radford MJ, Walsh EP, Webb GD. ACC/AHA 2008 Guidelines for the Management of Adults with Congenital Heart Disease: Executive Summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to develop guidelines for the management of adults with congenital heart disease). Circulation. 2008 Dec 2:118(23):2395-451. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.190811. Epub 2008 Nov 7     [PubMed PMID: 18997168]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[37]

Miranda WR, Connolly HM, DeSimone DC, Phillips SD, Wilson WR, Sohail MR, Steckelberg JM, Baddour LM. Infective Endocarditis Involving the Pulmonary Valve. The American journal of cardiology. 2015 Dec 15:116(12):1928-31. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2015.09.038. Epub 2015 Oct 9     [PubMed PMID: 26611123]

[38]

SCHERLIS L, KOENKER RJ, LEE YC. PULMONARY STENOSIS: ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHIC, VECTORCARDIOGRAPHIC, AND CATHETERIZATION DATA. Circulation. 1963 Aug:28():288-305     [PubMed PMID: 14051550]

[39]

Baumgartner H, Bonhoeffer P, De Groot NM, de Haan F, Deanfield JE, Galie N, Gatzoulis MA, Gohlke-Baerwolf C, Kaemmerer H, Kilner P, Meijboom F, Mulder BJ, Oechslin E, Oliver JM, Serraf A, Szatmari A, Thaulow E, Vouhe PR, Walma E, Task Force on the Management of Grown-up Congenital Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), Association for European Paediatric Cardiology (AEPC), ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG). ESC Guidelines for the management of grown-up congenital heart disease (new version 2010). European heart journal. 2010 Dec:31(23):2915-57. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq249. Epub 2010 Aug 27     [PubMed PMID: 20801927]

[40]

Fratz S, Hess J, Schwaiger M, Martinoff S, Stern HC. More accurate quantification of pulmonary blood flow by magnetic resonance imaging than by lung perfusion scintigraphy in patients with fontan circulation. Circulation. 2002 Sep 17:106(12):1510-3     [PubMed PMID: 12234957]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[41]

Kutty S, Rathod RH, Danford DA, Celermajer DS. Role of imaging in the evaluation of single ventricle with the Fontan palliation. Heart (British Cardiac Society). 2016 Feb:102(3):174-83. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2015-308298. Epub 2015 Nov 13     [PubMed PMID: 26567230]

[42]

Stout KK, Daniels CJ, Aboulhosn JA, Bozkurt B, Broberg CS, Colman JM, Crumb SR, Dearani JA, Fuller S, Gurvitz M, Khairy P, Landzberg MJ, Saidi A, Valente AM, Van Hare GF. 2018 AHA/ACC Guideline for the Management of Adults With Congenital Heart Disease: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2019 Apr 2:73(12):1494-1563. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2018.08.1028. Epub 2018 Aug 16     [PubMed PMID: 30121240]

Level 1 (high-level) evidence

[43]

Yin D, Wu X, Xiang P, Zhang Y, Tian J, Lv T, Yi Q, Li M. Outcomes of percutaneous balloon pulmonary valvuloplasty in congenital pulmonary valve stenosis. Clinical case reports. 2021 Sep:9(9):e04705. doi: 10.1002/ccr3.4705. Epub 2021 Aug 30     [PubMed PMID: 34484754]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[44]

Brown NK, Husain N, Arzu J, Ramlogan SR, Nugent AW, Tannous P. Combined Echo and Fluoroscopy-Guided Pulmonary Valvuloplasty in Neonates and Infants: Efficacy and Safety. Pediatric cardiology. 2022 Mar:43(3):665-673. doi: 10.1007/s00246-021-02771-2. Epub 2021 Nov 28     [PubMed PMID: 34839381]

[45]

Sakamoto T, Nagase Y, Takiguchi M, Umehara N. Biventricular Repair Conversion After Temporary One and a Half Ventricular Repair for Hypoplastic Right Ventricle. The Annals of thoracic surgery. 2022 Aug:114(2):e129-e132. doi: 10.1016/j.athoracsur.2021.10.051. Epub 2021 Dec 8     [PubMed PMID: 34890573]

[46]

Lee YO, Kim YJ, Lee JR, Kim WH. Long-term results of one-and-a-half ventricle repair in complex cardiac anomalies. European journal of cardio-thoracic surgery : official journal of the European Association for Cardio-thoracic Surgery. 2011 May:39(5):711-5. doi: 10.1016/j.ejcts.2010.07.048. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 20889350]

[47]

Tulzer A, Arzt W, Gitter R, Prandstetter C, Grohmann E, Mair R, Tulzer G. Immediate effects and outcome of in-utero pulmonary valvuloplasty in fetuses with pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum or critical pulmonary stenosis. Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2018 Aug:52(2):230-237. doi: 10.1002/uog.19047. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 29569770]

[48]

Anand R, Mehta AV. Natural history of asymptomatic valvar pulmonary stenosis diagnosed in infancy. Clinical cardiology. 1997 Apr:20(4):377-80     [PubMed PMID: 9098599]

[49]

Shaath G, Al Mutairi M, Tamimi O, Alakhfash A, Abolfotouh M, Alhabshan F. Predictors of reintervention in neonates with critical pulmonary stenosis or pulmonary atresia with intact ventricular septum. Catheterization and cardiovascular interventions : official journal of the Society for Cardiac Angiography & Interventions. 2012 Mar 1:79(4):659-64. doi: 10.1002/ccd.23320. Epub 2012 Jan 10     [PubMed PMID: 21954133]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[50]

Parent JJ, Ross MM, Bendaly EA, Breinholt JP. Results of pulmonary balloon valvuloplasty persist and improve at late follow-up in isolated pulmonary valve stenosis. Cardiology in the young. 2017 Oct:27(8):1566-1570. doi: 10.1017/S1047951117000804. Epub 2017 Jun 27     [PubMed PMID: 28651667]

[51]

Taggart NW, Cetta F, Cabalka AK, Hagler DJ. Outcomes for balloon pulmonary valvuloplasty in adults: comparison with a concurrent pediatric cohort. Catheterization and cardiovascular interventions : official journal of the Society for Cardiac Angiography & Interventions. 2013 Nov 1:82(5):811-5. doi: 10.1002/ccd.24973. Epub 2013 Jul 11     [PubMed PMID: 23613310]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[52]

Rao PS. Percutaneous balloon pulmonary valvuloplasty: state of the art. Catheterization and cardiovascular interventions : official journal of the Society for Cardiac Angiography & Interventions. 2007 Apr 1:69(5):747-63     [PubMed PMID: 17330270]

[53]

Ahmadi A, Sabri M. Percutaneous balloon valvuloplasty inpatients with pulmonary valve stenosis: a single center experiment. JPMA. The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association. 2012 Mar:62(3 Suppl 2):S58-61     [PubMed PMID: 22768462]

[54]

Roos-Hesselink JW, Meijboom FJ, Spitaels SE, vanDomburg RT, vanRijen EH, Utens EM, Bogers AJ, Simoons ML. Long-term outcome after surgery for pulmonary stenosis (a longitudinal study of 22-33 years). European heart journal. 2006 Feb:27(4):482-8     [PubMed PMID: 16361324]

Level 2 (mid-level) evidence

[55]

Nielsen EA, Hjortdal VE. Surgically treated pulmonary stenosis: over 50 years of follow-up. Cardiology in the young. 2016 Jun:26(5):860-6. doi: 10.1017/S1047951115001158. Epub 2015 Jul 21     [PubMed PMID: 26403466]

[56]

Hatemi AC, Gursoy M, Tongut A, Bicakhan B, Guzeltas A, Cetin G, Kansiz E. Pulmonary stenosis as a predisposing factor for infective endocarditis in a patient with Noonan syndrome. Texas Heart Institute journal. 2010:37(1):99-101     [PubMed PMID: 20200638]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence

[57]

Cuypers JA, Menting ME, Opić P, Utens EM, Helbing WA, Witsenburg M, van den Bosch AE, van Domburg RT, Baart SJ, Boersma E, Meijboom FJ, Bogers AJ, Roos-Hesselink JW. The unnatural history of pulmonary stenosis up to 40 years after surgical repair. Heart (British Cardiac Society). 2017 Feb 15:103(4):273-279. doi: 10.1136/heartjnl-2015-309159. Epub 2016 Aug 11     [PubMed PMID: 27515953]

[58]

Ruckdeschel ES, Schuller J, Nguyen DT. Ventricular Tachycardia in Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis. Cardiac electrophysiology clinics. 2016 Mar:8(1):205-9. doi: 10.1016/j.ccep.2015.10.030. Epub 2016 Jan 16     [PubMed PMID: 26920196]

[59]

Levine BD, Baggish AL, Kovacs RJ, Link MS, Maron MS, Mitchell JH. Eligibility and Disqualification Recommendations for Competitive Athletes With Cardiovascular Abnormalities: Task Force 1: Classification of Sports: Dynamic, Static, and Impact: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association and American College of Cardiology. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2015 Dec 1:66(21):2350-2355. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2015.09.033. Epub 2015 Nov 2     [PubMed PMID: 26542656]

[60]

Van Hare GF, Ackerman MJ, Evangelista JA, Kovacs RJ, Myerburg RJ, Shafer KM, Warnes CA, Washington RL, American Heart Association Electrocardiography and Arrhythmias Committee of Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in Young, Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, Council on Functional Genomics and Translational Biology, and American College of Cardiology. Eligibility and Disqualification Recommendations for Competitive Athletes With Cardiovascular Abnormalities: Task Force 4: Congenital Heart Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association and American College of Cardiology. Circulation. 2015 Dec 1:132(22):e281-91. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000240. Epub 2015 Nov 2     [PubMed PMID: 26621645]

[61]

Budts W, Pieles GE, Roos-Hesselink JW, Sanz de la Garza M, D'Ascenzi F, Giannakoulas G, Müller J, Oberhoffer R, Ehringer-Schetitska D, Herceg-Cavrak V, Gabriel H, Corrado D, van Buuren F, Niebauer J, Börjesson M, Caselli S, Fritsch P, Pelliccia A, Heidbuchel H, Sharma S, Stuart AG, Papadakis M. Recommendations for participation in competitive sport in adolescent and adult athletes with Congenital Heart Disease (CHD): position statement of the Sports Cardiology & Exercise Section of the European Association of Preventive Cardiology (EAPC), the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Working Group on Adult Congenital Heart Disease and the Sports Cardiology, Physical Activity and Prevention Working Group of the Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). European heart journal. 2020 Nov 14:41(43):4191-4199. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa501. Epub     [PubMed PMID: 32845299]

Level 3 (low-level) evidence