Tools
Pain Assessment
Introduction
Pain is the most common complaint seen in a primary care office. There are over 50 million Americans, 20% of all patients, who suffer from chronic pain in the United States.[1] The prevalence of chronic pain is even higher in the elderly.[2] With opioid use disorder on the rise, it is critical to treat a patient's pain logically and adequately.
Part of the pain assessment is defining whether a patient has acute or chronic pain. When severe pain lasts longer than 3 months, it is generally considered chronic. Determining if the pain is acute or chronic is an essential distinction because as pain transitions from acute to chronic, pain becomes centralized or a function of the central nervous system rather than peripheral. Pain becomes maladaptive, with hyperalgesia and allodynia becoming more prevalent. The texture of the tissues becomes hypertonic, ropy, and cold. Pain is often more dull and achy rather than sharp.
How we assess pain has long-term implications for our patient's morbidity and mortality. With over 30% of patients reporting pain lasting longer than 6 months, providers should have multiple tools at their disposal to define a patient's pain to treat their symptoms better. An estimated 8% of adult patients and 6% of children suffer from chronic pain that causes significant limitations in function and quality of life.[1][3]
Effective treatment modalities for acute, chronic, centralized, or neuropathic pain are often different. 10% of the United States population complain of neuropathic pain. This population may benefit from a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), such as duloxetine, as compared to ibuprofen for an acute injury.[4][5] Chronic pain is among the leading causes of disability and lost work hours in the United States. Billions of dollars are lost due to loss of productivity. Thus, standardized pain assessment tools are an objective way of monitoring a patient's symptoms and recovery.
An important aspect of the pain assessment is acknowledging the influence of various comorbidities and psychosocial determinants of health that impact pain. Comorbid mood disorders lead to worsening pain, and the treatment of said mood disorder improves a patient's pain. Prior history of opioid dependence, IV drug use, sexual abuse, trauma, old age, chronic diseases, and economic disparity all contribute to a patient's pain. Cultural influences on pain also play a role.[6][7][8]
Anatomy and Physiology
Register For Free And Read The Full Article
Search engine and full access to all medical articles- 10 free questions in your specialty
- Free CME/CE Activities
- Free daily question in your email
- Save favorite articles to your dashboard
- Emails offering discounts
Learn more about a Subscription to StatPearls Point-of-Care
Anatomy and Physiology
Acute pain is nociceptive pain. This type of pain originates in the peripheral nervous system, where pain receptors synapse in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and travel along the spinothalamic tract until they synapse in the thalamus. When a pain signal reaches our central nervous system, action potentials fire. Once a threshold is achieved, pain is experienced. Separately, pain can be neuropathic or centralized.
Pain can become centralized as pain becomes chronic, over 3 to 6 months of acute pain. Centralized pain requires a lower threshold to experience pain. Decreased thresholds are problematic. Pain is an adaptive response to a painful stimulus. A lower threshold for pain subjectively means pain can be experienced from non-painful stimuli (allodynia), or mildly painful stimuli experienced can be experienced as severe pain (hyperalgesia). Centralized pain is a maladaptive form of pain.
Neuropathic pain is the dysfunction of the somatosensory tract of the nervous system rather than the spinothalamic.[9][4] Centralized and neuropathic pain often coincide but are not mutually exclusive. Neuropathic pain can be both peripheral and centralized. Centralized and neuropathic pain are both considered gains in function (pain). They both play a role in the development of chronic pain.[10][11][12]
How we treat pain depends on the pathophysiology of the patient's pain. Some types of pain respond to modulating neurotransmitters or ion channels, while others are more receptive to opioid neuroreceptors.
Indications
Intuitively, pain is a subjective experience, and thus, many elements of the biopsychosocial components during history taking are critical. A stoic patient with acute pancreatitis may rate their pain severity a 4 out of 10, while a more histrionic patient with wrist strain could state their pain is an 8 out of 10. Neither patient is wrong, and it is a subjective measurement.[13] Objective measures of pain, especially chronic pain, help create a standardized way to orient patients and providers to their pain, with the ultimate goal of improving pain and patient outcomes such as function and quality of life.
An essential first step in the pain assessment is distinguishing nociceptive pain from neuropathic. A sharp or throbbing pain is more likely to be acute nociceptive pain. Pain characterized as burning, shooting, pins and needles, or electric shock-like points the differential towards a neuropathic origin of the patient's pain.[14][15][16]
Contraindications
The various aspects of the patient's life may affect treatment decisions. For instance, pregnancy is often associated with low back pain, and pregnancy can complicate the choice of medication treatment options for chronic pain, particularly the use of opioids.[17]
It is critical not to focus solely on the numerical value of someone's pain. Often, it is necessary to prompt a patient to explain the numerical scale of pain. A 1/10 pain is a minor bump or bruise, while 10/10 pain is the worst pain they have ever experienced on par with giving birth or passing a kidney stone.[18] If a patient complains of 9/10 pain, this does not mean they automatically warrant opioid analgesia.[19] They may benefit from less potent analgesics tailored to treating the underlying cause.
Equipment
A body diagram map can be completed to assess the location of a patient's pain fully. Ankle sprains are solitary, acute injuries. Body diagrams may not be necessary in such a case. Localized pain is different than whole-body pain. Yet, in a patient with multiple comorbid pain disorders such as fibromyalgia, centralized pain disorder, and rheumatoid arthritis, distinguishing between the numerous locations of a patient's pain, as well as factoring the radiation of their pain, is difficult. However, it is an essential part of guiding therapy. In a patient with widespread pain, a body diagram map helps distinguish between new and chronic pain complaints. Is the patient with multiple comorbidities experiencing a rheumatoid arthritis flare, or is it a reactivation of pain secondary to knee osteoarthritis? A body diagram helps to decipher multiple different types of pain.
A fibromyalgia survey can be used to help distinguish a new pain complaint from a patient's comorbid fibromyalgia as well. Functional MRI and various imaging modalities can be helpful in a pain assessment.[20][21]
Personnel
The primary care provider and specialists often need to review previous records of the patient's pain complaint in detail. Records usually include imaging, mental healthcare-related therapies such as cognitive-behavioral therapies, past surgical history, and previous medications. For example, if a patient with neuropathic pain secondary to diabetic peripheral neuropathy had failed gabapentin therapy, the reason for the medication failure must be noted. Inquire if it was due to the side effect profile. Ask if gabapentin had caused too much sedation or if the medication failed to provide the expected pain relief. If the drug does not work, determine the dose before stopping. If the patient with diabetic peripheral neuropathy was on 300 mg twice a day of gabapentin, then the patient was only on a fraction of the maximal dose before stopping. Gabapentin's failure in the treatment of neuropathic pain usually is concluded after 1800 mg daily, not 600 mg in tolerating patients.
Furthermore, nonpharmacological therapies such as virtual reality, acupuncture, physical therapy, and invasive treatment modalities such as neuromodulation can be utilized. The patient's records need to be obtained, and the failures and successes of these various treatment modalities must be defined.
Preparation
How a provider approaches their patient, their receptiveness, and the empathy they show can significantly impact patient outcomes. The relationship between the provider and the patient has a lasting impact on improving a patient's pain. Studies have shown that physician support and empathy improve pain and the well-being of patients.[22][23]
Technique or Treatment
Multiple acronyms are used to obtain a patient's pain history. Some of the most commonly used abbreviations are "COLDERAS" and "OLDCARTS." Both of these acronyms summarize the character, onset, location, duration, exacerbating symptoms, relieving symptoms, radiation of pain, associated symptoms, and severity of illness.
A multidimensional assessment of a patient's pain and the severity of their pain can be completed. A Pain, Enjoyment, General Activity (PEG) tool can aid the multidimensional assessment of patients in pain.[24] The PEG score focuses on function and quality of life. A chronic pain patient who experiences daily 7/10 pain is treated with both pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies. Following treatment, their pain is 5/10. A few points might not seem like a significant difference, but if their enjoyment and quality of life, as well as function, are improving, treatment may have profoundly impacted the patient's life. The PEG tool is scored 0 to 10 for each category. The higher the score, the worse the function and the more uncontrolled pain.
The 4-item Patient Health Questionnaire or PHQ-4 is a combination of the PHQ9 and GAD7 assessment tools used to evaluate depression and anxiety, respectively.[25] The PHQ-4 should be used as a screening tool for all cases of chronic pain. If the score of the PHQ-4 is more significant than 5, then a full GAD-7, PHQ-9, and the Primary Care PTSD screening tools are recommended.[26] The Defense and Veterans Pain Rating Scale (DVRPS) is a 5-item tool with a 0 to 10 out pain scale, as well as an assessment of the impact of pain on sleep, mood, stress, and activity levels.[27]
In children, self-reporting behavioral observation scales are used to assess pain.[28] Age-based rating scales of pain can be used. Visual analogs are also often implemented. Typically, visual analogs are done with pictures of faces in various degrees of distress. By adolescence, children usually can rate their pain on a numerical scale, similar to adults.[29]
The Pediatric Pain Questionnaire and the Adolescent and Pediatric Pain Tool are also used to assess the location of a patient's pain. The patient is asked to draw on the body map where they feel pain.[30] The ideal age group for these tools is age 10.
Observational pain assessment tools are used in populations who cannot self-report. The observational findings used in such an assessment tool are facial expression, fussiness, distractibility, ability to be consoled, verbal responsiveness, and motor control. Observational pain assessment in infants or young children can use the (r-FLACC) tool.[28][31] The tool is an acronym for Revised Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability.[32] Multiple other validated tools can be used, and 1 better than the other is the NAPI tool. However, multiple tools have been used and are validated.[33][34][35][31]
Nonverbal children with neurologic impairment (NI) are a challenging population to assess pain. Caregivers are often needed to help determine changes in the patient's behavior. Grimacing, moaning, increased muscle tone, crying, arching, and atypical behavior such as aggressive behavior are a few symptoms to monitor in this population. Nonverbal children with NI include the Revised Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability (r-FLACC) scale and the Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS). The assessment adds specific behavior for atypical presentations.[36][34]
Complications
A family history of mental health disorders, chronic pain disorders, or substance abuse puts patients at higher risk of developing chronic pain.[37][38][39] An overlooked aspect of pain management is the role sleep hygiene, stress, exercise, and diet play in injury recovery.
Catastrophizing about pain can be a symptom of severe and debilitating pain. There is real fear associated with pain that can be all-consuming for a patient. Ironically, this hyperfocus on pain often makes the subjective experience of pain worse, not better.[40]
Underserved communities are at increased risk for the development of chronic pain, substance abuse, and opioid dependence. When assessing a patient's pain, it is essential to be mindful of the area of your practice. Multiple factors contribute to the increased risk, including limited access to care and socioeconomic status. Local culture in specific geographic regions has a much higher percentage of the population on chronic opioids. The approach to assessing pain also changes for adults, children, the disabled, and the elderly.[41][42][43]
Failure to complete physical therapy after attending only 2 sessions for shoulder pain is not a failure of treatment—moreover, it is noncompliance. This is why it is critical to assess the effect of therapy. Stopping therapy because a patient does not wish to go to their appointments is very different from completing all sessions and continuing to have persistent pain. It is a complication of a poorly obtained pain assessment.
Observational assessment underestimates self-reported pain scores.[44] Hunger and stress levels also impact pain severity.[45]
Clinical Significance
The long-term impact of 2 to 3 days of acute, postoperative nociceptive pain pales in comparison to the centralized pain and its long-term impact on a patient's quality of life. Part of the pain assessment is categorizing the type of pain the patient is experiencing. How the pain is described is high yield. Ask if the pain is burning or sharp and if it is constant or intermittent because the descriptors matter. Examination findings also increase the likelihood of 1 type of pain over another. If the patient is experiencing symptoms of allodynia or hyperalgesia, this points away from acute pain and suggests a centralized process.[46][47]
Providers must discuss the expectations for therapy with the patient, and they need to teach patients about their pain. Various surgical procedures may put a patient at an increased rate of developing chronic pain. Breast surgery, for example, has a higher likelihood of chronic pain compared to knee placement.[48][49]
Assessment of pain is not a one-time occurrence. It narrows the differential diagnosis and is a way to monitor therapy and changes in pain over time. Chronic pain disorder, although appropriate as a diagnosis in some circumstances, is not a blanket label for all patients experiencing prolonged pain.[50] Treating comorbid health conditions in all pain complaints is essential. It improves patient outcomes.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
An interprofessional team that provides a holistic and integrated approach to pain management can help achieve the best possible outcomes for the patient. If there is a specific underlying cause of a patient's pain, it must be determined. The primary care provider's role in managing acute and chronic pain and the various comorbidities associated with pain is essential. Specialists are often needed to manage multiple pain disorders. Neurologists, pain medicine specialists, and orthopedic surgeons are but a few specialists who are a part of a pain assessment team.
Furthermore, palliative care or supportive care medicine specialists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, and cognitive-behavioral therapists also play an integral role in pain assessment. Pain assessment tools can be used in an inpatient or outpatient setting and be incorporated into the management of multiple scenarios ranging from post-operative pain, palliative pain, acute injury, or chronic pain disorders. Adequate pain management in both an acute and chronic setting leads to better patient outcomes. It is critical to optimize a patient's care by managing their pain with various nonpharmacological, pharmacological, and interventional treatment approaches.
Collaboration, shared decision-making, and communication are key elements for a good outcome. The interprofessional care provided to the patient must use an integrated care pathway combined with an evidence-based approach to planning and evaluating all joint activities. The earlier the signs and symptoms of a complication are identified, the better the prognosis and outcome. Adequate treatment and assessment of acute pain are the primary ways to prevent chronic pain.
Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions
Depending on the patient's age and associated comorbidities, various questionnaires should be administered at the beginning of each visit.
Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Monitoring
Various pain assessment tools can be used at each visit to monitor changes in pain over time and responses to treatment.
References
Dahlhamer J, Lucas J, Zelaya C, Nahin R, Mackey S, DeBar L, Kerns R, Von Korff M, Porter L, Helmick C. Prevalence of Chronic Pain and High-Impact Chronic Pain Among Adults - United States, 2016. MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2018 Sep 14:67(36):1001-1006. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6736a2. Epub 2018 Sep 14 [PubMed PMID: 30212442]
Johannes CB, Le TK, Zhou X, Johnston JA, Dworkin RH. The prevalence of chronic pain in United States adults: results of an Internet-based survey. The journal of pain. 2010 Nov:11(11):1230-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2010.07.002. Epub 2010 Aug 25 [PubMed PMID: 20797916]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceTumin D, Drees D, Miller R, Wrona S, Hayes D Jr, Tobias JD, Bhalla T. Health Care Utilization and Costs Associated With Pediatric Chronic Pain. The journal of pain. 2018 Sep:19(9):973-982. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2018.03.012. Epub 2018 Mar 30 [PubMed PMID: 29608973]
Colloca L, Ludman T, Bouhassira D, Baron R, Dickenson AH, Yarnitsky D, Freeman R, Truini A, Attal N, Finnerup NB, Eccleston C, Kalso E, Bennett DL, Dworkin RH, Raja SN. Neuropathic pain. Nature reviews. Disease primers. 2017 Feb 16:3():17002. doi: 10.1038/nrdp.2017.2. Epub 2017 Feb 16 [PubMed PMID: 28205574]
Bouhassira D, Lantéri-Minet M, Attal N, Laurent B, Touboul C. Prevalence of chronic pain with neuropathic characteristics in the general population. Pain. 2008 Jun:136(3):380-387. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2007.08.013. Epub 2007 Sep 20 [PubMed PMID: 17888574]
Generaal E, Vogelzangs N, Macfarlane GJ, Geenen R, Smit JH, de Geus EJ, Dekker J, Penninx BW. Biological Stress Systems, Adverse Life Events, and the Improvement of Chronic Multisite Musculoskeletal Pain Across a 6-Year Follow-Up. The journal of pain. 2017 Feb:18(2):155-165. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2016.10.010. Epub 2016 Nov 5 [PubMed PMID: 27825856]
Kucyi A, Davis KD. The dynamic pain connectome. Trends in neurosciences. 2015 Feb:38(2):86-95. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2014.11.006. Epub 2014 Dec 22 [PubMed PMID: 25541287]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceMason KJ, O'Neill TW, Lunt M, Jones AKP, McBeth J. Psychosocial factors partially mediate the relationship between mechanical hyperalgesia and self-reported pain. Scandinavian journal of pain. 2018 Jan 26:18(1):59-69. doi: 10.1515/sjpain-2017-0109. Epub [PubMed PMID: 29794289]
Kucyi A, Davis KD. The Neural Code for Pain: From Single-Cell Electrophysiology to the Dynamic Pain Connectome. The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry. 2017 Aug:23(4):397-414. doi: 10.1177/1073858416667716. Epub 2016 Sep 22 [PubMed PMID: 27660241]
Olesen AE, Andresen T, Staahl C, Drewes AM. Human experimental pain models for assessing the therapeutic efficacy of analgesic drugs. Pharmacological reviews. 2012 Jul:64(3):722-79. doi: 10.1124/pr.111.005447. Epub 2012 Jun 21 [PubMed PMID: 22722894]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceArendt-Nielsen L, Yarnitsky D. Experimental and clinical applications of quantitative sensory testing applied to skin, muscles and viscera. The journal of pain. 2009 Jun:10(6):556-72. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2009.02.002. Epub 2009 Apr 19 [PubMed PMID: 19380256]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceOssipov MH,Morimura K,Porreca F, Descending pain modulation and chronification of pain. Current opinion in supportive and palliative care. 2014 Jun; [PubMed PMID: 24752199]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceTurk DC, Okifuji A. Psychological factors in chronic pain: evolution and revolution. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology. 2002 Jun:70(3):678-90 [PubMed PMID: 12090376]
Amtmann D, Liljenquist KS, Bamer A, Gammaitoni AR, Aron CR, Galer BS, Jensen MP. Development and validation of the University of Washington caregiver stress and benefit scales for caregivers of children with or without serious health conditions. Quality of life research : an international journal of quality of life aspects of treatment, care and rehabilitation. 2020 May:29(5):1361-1371. doi: 10.1007/s11136-019-02409-0. Epub 2020 Jan 4 [PubMed PMID: 31902052]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceJensen MP, Dworkin RH, Gammaitoni AR, Olaleye DO, Oleka N, Galer BS. Assessment of pain quality in chronic neuropathic and nociceptive pain clinical trials with the Neuropathic Pain Scale. The journal of pain. 2005 Feb:6(2):98-106 [PubMed PMID: 15694876]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceBouhassira D, Attal N, Alchaar H, Boureau F, Brochet B, Bruxelle J, Cunin G, Fermanian J, Ginies P, Grun-Overdyking A, Jafari-Schluep H, Lantéri-Minet M, Laurent B, Mick G, Serrie A, Valade D, Vicaut E. Comparison of pain syndromes associated with nervous or somatic lesions and development of a new neuropathic pain diagnostic questionnaire (DN4). Pain. 2005 Mar:114(1-2):29-36 [PubMed PMID: 15733628]
Reddy UM, Davis JM, Ren Z, Greene MF, Opioid Use in Pregnancy, Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome, and Childhood Outcomes Workshop Invited Speakers. Opioid Use in Pregnancy, Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome, and Childhood Outcomes: Executive Summary of a Joint Workshop by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American Academy of Pediatrics, Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the March of Dimes Foundation. Obstetrics and gynecology. 2017 Jul:130(1):10-28. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000002054. Epub [PubMed PMID: 28594753]
Sullivan MD, Ballantyne JC. Must we reduce pain intensity to treat chronic pain? Pain. 2016 Jan:157(1):65-69. doi: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000336. Epub [PubMed PMID: 26307855]
Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain--United States, 2016. JAMA. 2016 Apr 19:315(15):1624-45. doi: 10.1001/jama.2016.1464. Epub [PubMed PMID: 26977696]
Davis KD, Seminowicz DA. Insights for Clinicians From Brain Imaging Studies of Pain. The Clinical journal of pain. 2017 Apr:33(4):291-294. doi: 10.1097/AJP.0000000000000439. Epub [PubMed PMID: 27648589]
Walitt B, Ceko M, Gracely JL, Gracely RH. Neuroimaging of Central Sensitivity Syndromes: Key Insights from the Scientific Literature. Current rheumatology reviews. 2016:12(1):55-87 [PubMed PMID: 26717948]
Scott JG, Scott RG, Miller WL, Stange KC, Crabtree BF. Healing relationships and the existential philosophy of Martin Buber. Philosophy, ethics, and humanities in medicine : PEHM. 2009 Aug 13:4():11. doi: 10.1186/1747-5341-4-11. Epub 2009 Aug 13 [PubMed PMID: 19678950]
Belcher AM, Ferré S, Martinez PE, Colloca L. Role of placebo effects in pain and neuropsychiatric disorders. Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry. 2018 Dec 20:87(Pt B):298-306. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.06.003. Epub 2017 Jun 14 [PubMed PMID: 28595945]
Krebs EE, Lorenz KA, Bair MJ, Damush TM, Wu J, Sutherland JM, Asch SM, Kroenke K. Development and initial validation of the PEG, a three-item scale assessing pain intensity and interference. Journal of general internal medicine. 2009 Jun:24(6):733-8. doi: 10.1007/s11606-009-0981-1. Epub 2009 May 6 [PubMed PMID: 19418100]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceKroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB, Löwe B. An ultra-brief screening scale for anxiety and depression: the PHQ-4. Psychosomatics. 2009 Nov-Dec:50(6):613-21. doi: 10.1176/appi.psy.50.6.613. Epub [PubMed PMID: 19996233]
Prins A, Bovin MJ, Smolenski DJ, Marx BP, Kimerling R, Jenkins-Guarnieri MA, Kaloupek DG, Schnurr PP, Kaiser AP, Leyva YE, Tiet QQ. The Primary Care PTSD Screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5): Development and Evaluation Within a Veteran Primary Care Sample. Journal of general internal medicine. 2016 Oct:31(10):1206-11. doi: 10.1007/s11606-016-3703-5. Epub 2016 May 11 [PubMed PMID: 27170304]
Polomano RC, Galloway KT, Kent ML, Brandon-Edwards H, Kwon KN, Morales C, Buckenmaier C' 3rd. Psychometric Testing of the Defense and Veterans Pain Rating Scale (DVPRS): A New Pain Scale for Military Population. Pain medicine (Malden, Mass.). 2016 Aug:17(8):1505-19. doi: 10.1093/pm/pnw105. Epub 2016 Jun 6 [PubMed PMID: 27272528]
Friedrichsdorf SJ, Giordano J, Desai Dakoji K, Warmuth A, Daughtry C, Schulz CA. Chronic Pain in Children and Adolescents: Diagnosis and Treatment of Primary Pain Disorders in Head, Abdomen, Muscles and Joints. Children (Basel, Switzerland). 2016 Dec 10:3(4): [PubMed PMID: 27973405]
Beyer JE, Denyes MJ, Villarruel AM. The creation, validation, and continuing development of the Oucher: a measure of pain intensity in children. Journal of pediatric nursing. 1992 Oct:7(5):335-46 [PubMed PMID: 1479552]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceTomlinson D, von Baeyer CL, Stinson JN, Sung L. A systematic review of faces scales for the self-report of pain intensity in children. Pediatrics. 2010 Nov:126(5):e1168-98. doi: 10.1542/peds.2010-1609. Epub 2010 Oct 4 [PubMed PMID: 20921070]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceBreau LM, Camfield C, McGrath PJ, Rosmus C, Finley GA. Measuring pain accurately in children with cognitive impairments: refinement of a caregiver scale. The Journal of pediatrics. 2001 May:138(5):721-7 [PubMed PMID: 11343050]
Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Burke C, Merkel S, Tait AR. The revised FLACC observational pain tool: improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment. Paediatric anaesthesia. 2006 Mar:16(3):258-65 [PubMed PMID: 16490089]
Solodiuk J, Curley MA. Pain assessment in nonverbal children with severe cognitive impairments: the Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS). Journal of pediatric nursing. 2003 Aug:18(4):295-9 [PubMed PMID: 12923744]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceHunt A, Burne R. Medical and nursing problems of children with neurodegenerative disease. Palliative medicine. 1995 Jan:9(1):19-26 [PubMed PMID: 7719515]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceVoepel-Lewis T, Merkel S, Tait AR, Trzcinka A, Malviya S. The reliability and validity of the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability observational tool as a measure of pain in children with cognitive impairment. Anesthesia and analgesia. 2002 Nov:95(5):1224-9, table of contents [PubMed PMID: 12401598]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceBreau LM, McGrath PJ, Camfield CS, Finley GA. Psychometric properties of the non-communicating children's pain checklist-revised. Pain. 2002 Sep:99(1-2):349-57 [PubMed PMID: 12237214]
Langford DJ, Theodore BR, Balsiger D, Tran C, Doorenbos AZ, Tauben DJ, Sullivan MD. Number and Type of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptom Domains Are Associated With Patient-Reported Outcomes in Patients With Chronic Pain. The journal of pain. 2018 May:19(5):506-514. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2017.12.262. Epub 2018 Jan 4 [PubMed PMID: 29307748]
Phifer J, Skelton K, Weiss T, Schwartz AC, Wingo A, Gillespie CF, Sands LA, Sayyar S, Bradley B, Jovanovic T, Ressler KJ. Pain symptomatology and pain medication use in civilian PTSD. Pain. 2011 Oct:152(10):2233-2240. doi: 10.1016/j.pain.2011.04.019. Epub 2011 Jun 12 [PubMed PMID: 21665366]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceMartel MO, Shir Y, Ware MA. Substance-related disorders: A review of prevalence and correlates among patients with chronic pain. Progress in neuro-psychopharmacology & biological psychiatry. 2018 Dec 20:87(Pt B):245-254. doi: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.06.032. Epub 2017 Jun 29 [PubMed PMID: 28669582]
Badr H, Shen MJ. Pain catastrophizing, pain intensity, and dyadic adjustment influence patient and partner depression in metastatic breast cancer. The Clinical journal of pain. 2014 Nov:30(11):923-33. doi: 10.1097/AJP.0000000000000058. Epub [PubMed PMID: 24402001]
Walco GA, Krane EJ, Schmader KE, Weiner DK. Applying a Lifespan Developmental Perspective to Chronic Pain: Pediatrics to Geriatrics. The journal of pain. 2016 Sep:17(9 Suppl):T108-17. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2015.11.003. Epub [PubMed PMID: 27586828]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceAndersen RD, Langius-Eklöf A, Nakstad B, Bernklev T, Jylli L. The measurement properties of pediatric observational pain scales: A systematic review of reviews. International journal of nursing studies. 2017 Aug:73():93-101. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.05.010. Epub 2017 May 20 [PubMed PMID: 28558342]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceKim YS, Park JM, Moon YS, Han SH. Assessment of pain in the elderly: A literature review. The National medical journal of India. 2017 Jul-Aug:30(4):203-207. doi: 10.4103/0970-258X.218673. Epub [PubMed PMID: 29162753]
Voepel-Lewis T, Malviya S, Tait AR, Merkel S, Foster R, Krane EJ, Davis PJ. A comparison of the clinical utility of pain assessment tools for children with cognitive impairment. Anesthesia and analgesia. 2008 Jan:106(1):72-8, table of contents. doi: 10.1213/01.ane.0000287680.21212.d0. Epub [PubMed PMID: 18165556]
Beyer JE, McGrath PJ, Berde CB. Discordance between self-report and behavioral pain measures in children aged 3-7 years after surgery. Journal of pain and symptom management. 1990 Dec:5(6):350-6 [PubMed PMID: 2269802]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceWiderström-Noga E. Neuropathic Pain and Spinal Cord Injury: Phenotypes and Pharmacological Management. Drugs. 2017 Jun:77(9):967-984. doi: 10.1007/s40265-017-0747-8. Epub [PubMed PMID: 28451808]
Tampin B, Broe RE, Seow LL, George SG, Tan J, Menon R, Jacques A, Slater H. Field testing of the revised neuropathic pain grading system in a cohort of patients with neck and upper limb pain. Scandinavian journal of pain. 2019 Jul 26:19(3):523-532. doi: 10.1515/sjpain-2018-0348. Epub [PubMed PMID: 30901318]
Peng L, Ren L, Qin P, Chen J, Feng P, Lin H, Su M. Continuous Femoral Nerve Block versus Intravenous Patient Controlled Analgesia for Knee Mobility and Long-Term Pain in Patients Receiving Total Knee Replacement: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine : eCAM. 2014:2014():569107. doi: 10.1155/2014/569107. Epub 2014 Aug 28 [PubMed PMID: 25254055]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceHsia HL, Takemoto S, van de Ven T, Pyati S, Buchheit T, Ray N, Wellman S, Kuo A, Wallace A, Raghunathan K. Acute Pain Is Associated With Chronic Opioid Use After Total Knee Arthroplasty. Regional anesthesia and pain medicine. 2018 Oct:43(7):705-711. doi: 10.1097/AAP.0000000000000831. Epub [PubMed PMID: 29975257]
Wideman TH, Edwards RR, Walton DM, Martel MO, Hudon A, Seminowicz DA. The Multimodal Assessment Model of Pain: A Novel Framework for Further Integrating the Subjective Pain Experience Within Research and Practice. The Clinical journal of pain. 2019 Mar:35(3):212-221. doi: 10.1097/AJP.0000000000000670. Epub [PubMed PMID: 30444733]