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Lung Torsion
Introduction
Lung torsion is a rare condition that is classically seen when there is a disruption in the thoracic cavity. Common causes of lung torsion include thoracotomy, lung transplantation, and trauma. However, spontaneous cases have also been reported.[1]
Lung torsion is a life-threatening disease that requires a timely diagnosis because lung rotation can cause vascular compromise and airway obstruction, resulting in lung tissue necrosis. With immediate management, the affected lung or pulmonary lobe can be salvaged. Overall, lung torsion has a poor prognosis due to misdiagnosis and delay in treatment. If detorsion occurs and the lung is fixed in place, then it can recover to full function. This article will review the etiology, epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management of lung torsion.
Etiology
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Etiology
A history of intrathoracic procedures is common in patients with lung torsion, although spontaneous etiologies are also known.[1] The causes of lung torsion in adults include the following:
- Thoracic or abdominal trauma[2]
- Lung transplantation[3][4]
- Unilateral
- Bilateral
- Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) procedure[5]
- Thoracentesis[6]
- Thoracic Procedures[7]
- Spontaneous etiology
Commonly known causes of lung torsion in pediatric patients include the following:
Epidemiology
Lung torsion is rare, with the incidence reported to be 0.089% to 0.3% in one case series.[16] In this case study, lung torsion was found in 62.4% of patients post-operatively, 8.3% after trauma, and in 29.4% of patients, lung torsion occurred spontaneously. [16]
It was found that 21.6% of lung torsion cases occurred after VATS and 78.4% after thoracotomy. The case series also reviewed the site of lung torsion most commonly involved. In the study, 74.4% of lung torsions occurred after a right upper lobe lobectomy. The right middle lobe was the most common site (29.4% of patients after thoracic surgery). The incidence among genders was not significantly different. The case series reported that 58.3% of the cases occurred among males, and 41.7% occurred among females.[16]
Pathophysiology
Lung torsion is a result of a disruption in the thoracic cavity. This can vary from thoracotomy, pleural effusion, pneumothorax, trauma, or anything that can disturb the vasculature or lung tissue. Fluid accumulation from pleural effusion, inflammatory infiltrates from atelectasis, opacities from pneumonia, or other invasive procedures can compress the lung, vasculature, or airways. It may cause the lung to rotate and obstruct the pulmonary vessels. The large space in the thoracic cavity is a risk factor that allows mobility for the lung or lobes to rotate after segmentectomy or lobectomy. Even complete fissures without pleural adhesions or long bronchovascular vessels can cause lung torsion.[4][10][1][11][12][13][17]
Lung torsion results in either part of the lobe or the entire lobe twisting along an axis. This results in the obstruction of the bronchovascular tree, which eventually compromises the pulmonary arterial and venous circulation along with the bronchial circulation. It is found that if the lobe is rotated more than 180 degrees, the bronchovascular pedicle would be acutely obstructed, resulting in atelectasis followed by pulmonary infarction and necrosis. Bronchovascular obstruction will decrease arterial oxygen content as the lung will not get enough blood supply.[13]
Hypoxemia may result from intrapulmonary shunting, alveolar hyperventilation, and a mismatch of ventilation/perfusion (V/Q). Intrapulmonary shunting occurs if lobular veins are partially obstructed in an unventilated lung with some venous return. Alveolar hypoventilation occurs because the bronchus is kinked, decreasing the airflow from the airway to the bronchus. This may also increase airway secretions adding to the obstruction. If ventilation/perfusion mismatch occurs, there is partial bronchial obstruction but no venous return to the lobe because of complete vascular obstruction. Without proper oxygen requirements, the lung tissue can become non-viable. If the lung is not operated on early, the lung tissue can become necrotic.[13][18][19][20]
Histopathology
Histopathology of the rotated lung reveals visceral pleural fibrosis of the affected lung, and the tissue is filled with alveolar macrophages.[18]
History and Physical
No specific clinical signs or physical exam findings suggest lung torsion as the diagnosis. Nonspecific clinical signs include fever, chest pain, shortness of breath, and cough.[16] The most common symptom, however, are dyspnea, fever, and chest pain, respectively.[16] Most of these symptoms appear 4 to 14 days after a thoracic procedure, trauma, or any other triggering effect. Some patients were even asymptomatic and showed no clinical signs.
Physical exam findings can reveal hypoxia, respiratory discomfort, and tachypnea.[13][16][21][18][1] Radiological imaging, however, is required to confirm the diagnosis of lung torsion.[22]
Evaluation
Initial laboratory work can show leukocytosis, but it's not always present. Arterial blood gas may appear normal and not reflect the hypoxia; therefore, the diagnosis is made through radiologic imaging.[2]
An x-ray can show worsening consolidation, and sometimes abruption of the pulmonary artery may be seen. Anatomic abnormalities and pulmonary opacities can also be seen in x-ray imaging. Serial x-rays can show consolidation progression, especially if pneumonia is superimposing on lung torsion.[16][23][24]
Bronchoscopy can also reveal findings indicating lung torsion. In previous case studies, bronchoscopy revealed obstruction where the bronchoscope could not advance into the bronchus due to the narrowing of the passageway. The bronchial stenosis and a "fish mouth" orifice or noting twisting or extrinsic compression could be seen through bronchoscopy. Early identification of lung torsion using bedside bronchoscopy can preserve the lung tissue without needing a pneumonectomy.[25] However, bronchoscopy does not always reveal narrowing or diagnose lung torsion; therefore, a computed tomography (CT) scan is required to confirm the diagnosis.[16][18][26]
A CT scan can show obstruction of bronchial arteries, lobar opacification, or atelectasis and lobular collapse. Vascular and bronchial structures can appear stenosed, blocked, or inverted on imaging and may be seen as the "antler sign."[27]
Obstruction in the airway can reveal tracheobronchial tree narrowing of the affected bronchus. The lung can rotate at various angles; however, one case series has shown that the lobe was rotated about 180 degrees in most cases. Follow-up CT scans can indicate a change in the position of the lesions as the lung torsion progresses. The presence of an "antler sign" on the chest CT scan with contrast, in addition to evidence of bronchial obstruction or abnormal fissure orientation, indicates lung torsion and requires confirmation by performing reconstructions of 3-dimensional views of the CT scan.[27]
CT angiography can show abrupt truncation and pulmonary artery obstruction. These images have also revealed interlobular septal thickening in the displaced lobe and venous congestion. Sometimes abnormal lobe displacement can reveal a fissure. If the lung tissue has become necrotic, imaging will reveal the loss of parenchymal and pulmonary vascular sites.[16][26][18][27]
Treatment / Management
Patients that are treated early on before necrosis occurs can have viable tissue saved. Case studies show that patients who underwent detorsion of the rotated lung could have full function returned with the lung re-expanding. Once the lungs go through detorsion, they must be fixed between the involved lung and the surrounding tissue with sutures or staples.
If the lung can't go through detorsion or if detorsion fails, then lobectomy must occur. Detorsion must be performed within the first few hours of diagnosis to save a viable lung. Any longer, the lung may already have irreversible ischemic damage, where it may be safer to perform a resection without detorsion. This would prevent the inflammatory markers that build up during the torsion from leaking out into the rest of the body and causing multiorgan failure.
For the damaged tissue, it is best to keep the lung rotated until the pulmonary veins have been clamped to prevent the systemic release of the inflammatory markers. Once safely clamped, a clinical decision can be made whether the lung can go through detorsion or if resection should occur.
Delayed treatment can also cause a clot to form, resulting in pulmonary embolism or stroke. Heparin drip can be used as a prophylactic measure to prevent this complication. Conservative management was found to have recurrent pneumonia, eventually leading to death. Very few cases had complications of pneumonia, air leaks, or emphysema after fixation. Most procedures occurred without any complications intra-operatively and post-operatively.[18][28][29][30](B2)
Differential Diagnosis
Studies have found that misdiagnosis occurred in 18.3% of patients with lung torsion. Most differentials can be excluded by CT scan, CT angiography, or bronchoscopy from abnormal lobular placement. Diagnosis is confirmed with the vascular and airway obstructions seen on the CT scans. Differential diagnosis of lung torsion includes several possibilities, including those below.[13][14][16][31][32]
- Hemothorax
- Hemorrhage
- Pneumonia (infectious versus aspiration)
- Contusion (after sub-lobar resection; can appear like airspace consolidation that resolves after a few days)
- Lung gangrene
- Parenchymal infection
- Atelectasis
- Tumor
- Loculated effusion
- Emphysema
- Inadvertent ligation of the hilum
- Diaphragmatic herniation
- Leakage of the anastomosis site
Prognosis
Prognosis is poor if lung torsion management is delayed or the patient becomes septic resulting in ischemia of the lung tissue. The mortality rate was found to be as high as 8.3%.[16] Higher mortality rates were associated with whole lung torsion compared to lobar torsion.[16]
Studies have found similar survival rates among repositioning and direct repositioning. Indirection resection had higher mortality. Mortality from lung torsion was found to be highest in trauma patients at 22.2%, followed by thoracic surgery at 8.8% and spontaneous lung torsion at 3.1%.[16][33]
Complications
Correction of lung torsion is an emergent surgical procedure with many associated complications, including those listed below.[13][34][35][36][37][38]
- Pneumonia
- Cerebrovascular accident
- Necrosis of the lung tissue
- Hemorrhage
- Vocal cord injury
- Bronchopleural fistulae
- Pulmonary embolism
- Post-thoracic surgery noncardiogenic pulmonary edema
- Atelectasis
- Bronchospasm
- Respiratory failure
- Air leak including pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, pneumopericardium
- Emphysema
Deterrence and Patient Education
Patients should be advised to avoid any blunt trauma to the thoracic or abdominal cavity after having a thoracic procedure to minimize the risk of postoperative lung torsion.
Pearls and Other Issues
Lung torsion is a diagnosis that can be made from a chest x-ray, CT scan, or bronchoscopy. Lung torsion is confirmed with a CT scan and is a life-threatening pathology. Bronchovascular and airway compromise occurs. If not treated in a timely fashion, then necrosis of the lung can occur. Detorsion of the lung or lobectomy is the treatment option.
If a thoracic procedure occurs, pneumopexy of the lung lobe should be performed to prevent lung torsion. After lobectomy or segmentectomy, the remaining lobe should be stapled or sutured so it stays fixed; however, this is not commonly practiced as a component of prophylactic treatment. A postopertive follow-up would require monitoring for air leaks. Practitioners should consider heparin drip for prophylactic prevention of pulmonary embolism.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
If a thoracic procedure, such as VATS or lobectomy, is performed, stapling the lung or pneumopexy of the lobe should be considered to prevent lung torsion. Lung torsion is a diagnosis that must be made promptly and classically through radiologic imaging. Once a diagnosis is made, contacting the thoracic surgical team to salvage the lung is imperative. Coordination and rapid, effective communication among interprofessional care team members, including clinicians and surgeons, radiologists, nurses, and surgical assistants, are essential to ensure a timely diagnosis and correction of this potentially fatal condition.
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