Grief Reaction and Prolonged Grief Disorder

Etiology

Factors Increasing Risk for Prolonged Grief 

Traumatic circumstances such as the death of a spouse or a child, the death of a parent in early childhood or adolescence, sudden, unexpected, and untimely deaths (particularly if associated with horrific circumstances), multiple deaths (particularly disasters), and deaths by murder or manslaughter can prolong grief.

Vulnerable people such as those with low self-esteem, low trust in others, previous psychiatric disorders, previous suicidal threats or attempts, young age of the deceased, lower perceived social supports, an ambivalent attachment to deceased people, dependent or interdependent attachment to the deceased person, and insecure attachment to parents in childhood (mainly learned fear or learned helplessness).[7][8]

Epidemiology

Gender

Results from studies evaluating gender differences in prolonged grief show mixed results, with some showing little difference.[9] Other study results showed that men tended to exude higher levels of acute distress that decreased over time, while women tended to have increasing symptoms over time.[10] Other results have reported female gender and low social support as risk factors for prolonged grief.[11] There are likely significant personal and cultural variances affecting these outcomes. 

Age

Grief can manifest differently in patients of varying ages. Children and adolescents will grieve differently according to their developmental stages. Identifying prolonged grief in children can be challenging, depending on the child's ability to communicate their emotions and needs. Increased grief and distress can be anticipated if the loss was of a primary attachment or caregiver. Grieving children may display delays in meeting developmental milestones or anger and frustration at their needs not being met. Children rely heavily on adults and social support to help them cope and navigate the grieving process. Some specific types of distress seen in children after loss include separation distress and existential or identity distress.

If the death occurred in a traumatic fashion, it may bring up recurrent images of the trauma or complicated emotions ranging from self-blame to fear or desires for vengeance. Well-intentioned adults may limit the information given to children about death to protect them. However, they could also limit their ability to process death due to a lack of clarity of information.[12] A child's ability to conceptualize loss and death is influenced by their developmental stage, for example, an ability to comprehend abstract concepts. It is advised to seek the consultation of a professional trained in developmental stages and their influence on the grieving process to support a child's grief.

Pathophysiology

Physiologic stress resulting from intense grief can have a wide range of consequences. Increased cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events have been associated with intense grief, in some cases leading to myocardial infarctions or cardiomyopathy. Various mechanisms have been theorized to explain this association. Emotional triggers are linked to increases in stress hormones, catecholamine release, and increased sympathetic nervous system stimulation. This stress can result in hemodynamic changes, including the following:

• Vasoconstriction
• Increased blood pressure
• Increased heart rate
• Arrhythmias 
• Increased platelet activity and aggregation
• Release of proinflammatory cytokines
• Increased release of endothelin 
• Production of fibrinogen (which promotes plaque destabilization and a prothrombotic state)[5]

Prolonged grief can also give rise to more subtle physiological consequences, potentially stemming from anhedonia or social isolation. People may be less prone to address their healthcare needs, decrease their nutritional intake, exercise, and sleep, and become socially isolated—all of which have negative mental and physical health consequences. 

History and Physical

Creating a safe space for patients to discuss their grief is essential during an evaluation, as they may be reluctant to bring it up and may need an invitation or direct question to begin talking about their grief. Patients may also not be fully aware of how their grief is manifesting and may not be aware that it could lead to many common physical complaints. 

Common grief reactions: Reactions to loss are called grief reactions and vary from person to person and within the same person over time. Grief reactions lead to complex somatic and psychological symptoms.

Feelings: The person who experiences a loss may have a range of feelings, including shock, numbness, sadness, denial, anger, guilt, helplessness, depression, and yearning. A person may cry for no reason.

Thoughts: Grief can cause a sense of disbelief, confusion, difficulty concentrating, preoccupation, and hallucinations.

Physical sensations: Grief can cause physical sensations like tightness and heaviness in the chest or throat, nausea or stomach upset, dizziness, headaches, numbness, muscle weakness, gastrointestinal upset, tension, or fatigue. 

Behaviors: Difficulty sleeping, loss of interest in daily activities, and becoming more aggressive or irritable may be expected in those experiencing grief.

Somatic symptoms: Chest tightness and choking, shortness of breath, abdominal distress, decreased muscle power, and lethargy.

Psychological symptoms: Guilt, anger, hostility, restlessness, inability to concentrate, lack of capacity to initiate and maintain an organized pattern of activities.

Takosubo cardiomyopathy: Chest pain and shortness of breath after severe stress (emotional or physical), electrocardiogram changes that mimic heart attack with no coronary artery occlusion, movement abnormalities of the left ventricle, and ballooning of the left ventricle.

Evaluation

The DSM-5 and the ICD-11 have defined prolonged grief disorder. While they vary slightly, an overall description of the criteria includes the death of a person who was close to the bereaved patient occurring at least 12 months ago (or 6 months ago for children and adolescents), with a persistent grief response including intense yearning or longing for the deceased person or a preoccupation with thoughts or memories of the deceased person occurring most days. Some of the following also accompany this condition:

• Identity disruption 
• Disbelief about the death
• Avoidance of reminders of the fact that the person is deceased
• Intense emotional pain
• Difficulty reintegrating into relationships and activities
• Inability to experience a positive mood
• Emotional numbness

The disturbance causes impairment in social, educational, occupational, or other essential aspects of daily function, and the symptoms exceed the cultural or religious norms for the patient and are not better attributed to another psychological diagnosis or substance use. [13]

Screening questionnaires such as the Brief Grief Questionnaire (BGQ) and the Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG) can reliably identify complicated grief. [14][15] There are some screening tools designed to predict complicated grief in the spouses of cancer patients. These 2 scales, the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale (FACES III) and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), assess family functioning, psychological functioning, and grief reaction. 

The grief evaluation measure (GEM) can also assist in identifying the development of complicated grief symptoms in a mourning adult. This evaluation assesses qualitative and quantitative risk factors, including the mourner's loss and medical history, financial resources before and after the loss, and circumstances surrounding the death. The GEM also provides in-depth information on bereaved individuals' subjective grief symptoms and associated experiences.[16]

Treatment / Management

Normal Grief: Most bereaved persons adapt over 6 months to 1 year.

Complicated grief: This condition is managed best with complicated grief therapy, which incorporates elements of cognitive behavioral therapy and other techniques aimed at promoting adaptation to the loss, including acceptance of the loss and restoring a sense of meaning and satisfaction in life without the deceased loved one.[17][18][19] Patients experiencing complicated grief may also benefit from pharmacological treatment of bereavement-related depression.(A1)

Takosubo cardiomyopathy: Patients with Takosubo cardiomyopathy require inpatient cardiology evaluation. They are initially evaluated and treated similarly to myocardial infarction. Treatment options are supportive, and symptoms often resolve along with the resolution of the inciting physical and emotional stress. However, sometimes severe symptoms of shock or heart failure develop that need more intensive interventions. 

Assessing the bereaved for ongoing unmet needs following the loss of their loved ones, including practical requirements like the ability to manage activities of daily living, is also essential. For example, it is possible that the deceased loved one was in charge of managing the finances or driving or cooking for a couple, and the bereaved may not have the ability or skills to maintain these activities without assistance. 

Differential Diagnosis

Differentiate complicated grief from major depressive disorder (MDD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Complicated grief's classic symptom presentation of yearning and sorrow, along with the preoccupied thoughts of the deceased and the inability to accept the reality of death, help in differentiating this condition from MDD and PTSD.[17]

Prognosis

The course depends on how patients adapt to their new reality. This is contingent upon their personal resiliency, support system, and psychiatric assistance. 

Complications

Physical Complications

• Impairment of the immune response system
• Increased adrenocortical activity
• Increased mortality from heart disease (especially in older, widowed patients)

Psychiatric Nonspecific Disorders

• Depression (with or without suicidal risk)
• Anxiety 
• Panic disorders
• Other psychiatric disorders
• PTSD