Tools
Diltiazem
Indications
Diltiazem is an oral and parenteral non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker. It is useful in many clinical scenarios as an antihypertensive, anti-arrhythmic, and anti-anginal agent.[1]
FDA-approved Indications
- Atrial arrhythmia, including atrial fibrillation with the rapid ventricular rate (RVR)[2]
- Hypertension
- Paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia
- Chronic stable angina
- Angina Due to Coronary Artery Spasm( Prinzmetal's or variant angina)[3]
Diltiazem also has utility in numerous off-label indications. A select few are listed below.
Non-FDA-approved Indications
- Anal fissures[4]
- Migraine prophylaxis[5]
- Pulmonary hypertension(Group 1 Pulmonary hypertension patients with positive vasoreactivity test)[6][7]
Mechanism of Action
Register For Free And Read The Full Article
Search engine and full access to all medical articles- 10 free questions in your specialty
- Free CME/CE Activities
- Free daily question in your email
- Save favorite articles to your dashboard
- Emails offering discounts
Learn more about a Subscription to StatPearls Point-of-Care
Mechanism of Action
Diltiazem is a non-dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker (CCB). Therapeutic effects occur through various mechanisms. Primarily, diltiazem inhibits the inflow of calcium ions into the cardiac muscle during depolarization. Reduced intracellular calcium concentrations increase smooth muscle relaxation, resulting in arterial vasodilation and decreased blood pressure.
Hypertension
- Diltiazem primarily produces its antihypertensive effect by relaxing the vascular smooth muscle and decreasing peripheral vascular resistance. The magnitude of blood pressure reduction is related to hypertension; thus, hypertensive individuals experience an antihypertensive effect, whereas there is only a modest fall in blood pressure in normotensives.
Atrial Arrhythmia/Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia
- Diltiazem is a negative inotrope (decreased force) and negative chronotrope (reduced rate). Along with coronary artery vasodilation, the combination decreases myocardial oxygen demand resulting in decreased heart rate.
Angina
- Diltiazem has been shown to increase exercise tolerance, probably due to its ability to reduce myocardial oxygen demand. This is accomplished via reductions in heart rate and blood pressure at submaximal and maximal workloads. Diltiazem is a potent dilator of coronary arteries, both epicardial and subendocardial.[8]
Pharmacokinetics
Absorption: Diltiazem is well absorbed from the GIT and undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism; resultant bioavailability is approximately 40%. The immediate-release diltiazem tablet has an onset of action of 30 to 60 minutes.[9]
Distribution: Diltiazem is 70% to 80% bound to plasma proteins.
Metabolism: Diltiazem is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 system and is an inhibitor of CYP3A4, which can lead to drug-drug interactions. Desacetyl diltiazem, the metabolite of diltiazem, also contributes to coronary vasodilatation.[10]
Excretion: The plasma elimination half-life following drug administration is about 3.0 to 4.5 hours. Diltiazem undergoes extensive metabolism in which 2% to 4% of the unchanged drug appears in the urine.
Administration
In the United States, diltiazem is FDA-approved as an oral immediate-release, extended-release, controlled-release (CD), and intravenous formulation. There are numerous brand names for oral diltiazem (capsules and tablets), and available strengths include 30 mg, 60 mg, 90 mg, 120 mg, 180 mg, 240 mg, 300 mg, 360 mg, and 420 mg. Compounded topical preparations of diltiazem are used off-label.[11][12] Review the package insert for the formulation by brand name because pharmacokinetics vary significantly between different brands.
Diltiazem may be confused with diazepam. The use of tall-man lettering is advised to avoid this medication error as it poses a significant threat to patient safety. Hence FDA and ISMP (institute of safe medical practices) have provided the name of these sound-alike look-alike drugs to avoid potential medical errors.[13][14]
The following represent the dosing variances by condition using generic names under various trade names.
Recommended Dosages
Hypertension
- Diltiazem hydrochloride (various brands)
- Initial dose: 180 mg to 240 mg once daily
- Maximum dose: 480 mg once daily
- Diltiazem HCl (various brands)
- Initial dose: 120 mg to 240 mg once daily
- Maximum dose: 540 mg once daily
- Diltiazem HCl extended-release (various brands)
- Initial dose: 180 mg to 240 mg once daily
- Maximum dose: 540 mg once daily
Chronic Stable Angina
- Diltiazem hydrochloride (various brands)
- Initial dose: 30 mg four times daily*
- Diltiazem HCl (various brands)
- Initial dose: 120 mg to 180 mg once daily
- Maximum dose: 480 mg once daily
- Diltiazem HCl (various brands)
- Initial dose: 120 mg to 180 mg once daily
- Maximum dose: 540 mg once daily
- Diltiazem HCl extended-release (various brands)*
- Initial dose: 180 mg once daily
- Diltiazem HCl extended-release (various brands)
- Initial dose: 120 mg once daily
- Maximum dose: 480 mg once daily
Atrial Arrhythmia/Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia
- Initial dose: IV bolus 0.25 mg/kg ABW(adjusted body weight) IV over 2 minutes
- If needed, repeat the dose at 0.35 mg/kg ABW IV after 15 minutes
- Maintenance dose: IV continuous infusion 10mg/hr
- Increase dose at 5mg/hr to max 15mg/hr
- Max infusion time is 24 hours
Renal Impairment
- No dose adjustment is necessary.
Hepatic Impairment
- No dose adjustment is likely needed for mild-moderate hepatic impairment, but diltiazem is extensively metabolized in the liver. Consequently, use with caution in hepatic impairment.[3]
Pregnancy Considerations
- Diltiazem is teratogenic in animals, and only limited human data exist; thus, its use is only recommended in pregnancy if the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.[15]
Breastfeeding Considerations
- Diltiazem is excreted in human milk. Based on the current data, the amounts of diltiazem ingested by the infant are small. However, due to serious adverse reactions, if diltiazem is deemed essential, the clinician should suggest an alternative method of infant feeding.[16]
Adverse Effects
- Common adverse effects of diltiazem therapy include peripheral edema, bradycardia, dizziness, headache, and fatigue.[17]
- Severe adverse effects include congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, and hepatotoxicity.[3]
- Diltiazem is indicated for treating arrhythmias and, consequently, has the potential to worsen or create new arrhythmias such as extrasystole and AV block.[18]
- Diltiazem is extensively metabolized through the CYP450 system and requires careful medication profile review. Concomitant use alongside potent CYP450 inhibitors may increase diltiazem concentrations leading to adverse effects even at clinically recommended doses.[19]
- Concurrent administration with agents that slow cardiac conduction can further potentiate adverse effects like AV block or bradycardia.[20]
- Diltiazem-associated photo-distributed hyperpigmentation has been described in case reports.[21]
- Drug-Drug Interactions: Beta-blockers and diltiazem interaction may lead to bradyarrhythmias. [22] A recent drug-drug interaction study has identified a fatality resulting from diltiazem-ibrutinib interaction. Diltiazem is a moderate inhibitor of CYP3A4, and ibrutinib is a substrate of this CYP3A4; concurrent administration for an extended time decreases ibrutinib clearance and results in cardiotoxicity.[23] Diltiazem is also a P-glycoprotein inhibitor; hence there is an increased bleeding risk associated with direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) like dabigatran or apixaban concomitantly with the P-glycoprotein inhibitor diltiazem.[24]
Contraindications
- Sick sinus syndrome except in the presence of a functioning ventricular pacemaker
- Severe hypotension(SBP<90 mm hg)
- Documented hypersensitivity to the drug
- Acute myocardial infarction and pulmonary congestion
- Concurrent administration of intravenous beta-blockers
- Wide complex ventricular tachycardia[25]
- Atrial fibrillation or flutter associated with an accessory bypass tract (i.e., Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome)[26]
- Second- or third-degree AV block except in the presence of a functioning ventricular pacemaker[18]
- Cardiogenic shock[27]
- According to ACC/AHA 2022 guidelines, in patients with HFrEF(heart failure with reduced ejection fraction) after acute myocardial infarction, diltiazem is associated with a higher risk of recurrent HF.[28]
- Alcohol increases the rate of absorption of diltiazem hydrochloride. Alcohol increases the rate and extent of exposure to diltiazem controlled-release (CD) formulation and is associated with dose-related adverse reactions. Advise patients to avoid simultaneous consumption of alcohol with diltiazem CD.
Monitoring
Therapeutic monitoring includes periodic blood pressure assessments, heart rate, and electrocardiograms. When treating hypertension and arrhythmias, objective findings assess the therapy's efficacy. In contrast, subjective findings, such as a patient's frequency and severity of chest pain, are used to evaluate effectiveness when treating chronic angina.
A comprehensive metabolic panel is also performed at baseline to track potential changes in electrolytes and kidney and liver function.
Additional monitoring is required when using diltiazem parenterally. When treating arrhythmias, an IV bolus is administered over two minutes. Continuous blood pressure and ECG monitoring are necessary during bolus administration.
For the treatment of hypertension during pregnancy, recommendations state that using an alternative agent, since diltiazem has shown adverse fetal effects in animal studies. If a patient is controlled on diltiazem to treat hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, diltiazem therapy may continue, but additional fetal monitoring is required.[15]
Similarly, serum digoxin levels should be monitored with concurrent administration of diltiazem. Clinicians should monitor apixaban anti-Xa assay or heparin anti-Xa assay to decide if patients require dose adjustment to reduce adverse events in patients prescribed apixaban and concomitant p-glycoprotein and CYP3A4 inhibitors like diltiazem with statins.[29]
Toxicity
Diltiazem is available in many dosage forms and strengths, making it imperative to be cautious when prescribing, dispensing, and administering this medication. There have been reports of diltiazem overdose in amounts ranging from <1 g to 18 g. In cases with the known outcome, most patients recovered, and in cases with a fatal outcome, the majority involved multiple drug ingestion.
Clinical Features
- Profound bradycardia
- Dizziness
- End organ dysfunction
- Hypotension
- AV block
- Cardiac failure
- Cardiac arrest
Management
- Treat according to ACLS protocol for arrhythmias and hypotension.[30]
- Whole bowel irrigation for gastrointestinal decontamination[31]
- Administer IV calcium gluconate or calcium chloride.[32]
- Administer IV atropine (0.60 to 1.0 mg) for bradycardia.[33]
- IV glucagon enhances intracellular levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate and increases heart rate.[34]
- Severe toxicity may respond to hyperinsulinemia/euglycemia therapy(HIET).[35]
- Lipid emulsion therapy in significant cardiotoxicity.[36]
- Transvenous pacemaker to assist with electrical conduction. If there are no contraindications, an intra-aortic balloon pump can be deployed.[37]
- Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation is used for Massive diltiazem overdose.[38]
- CCBs, including diltiazem, are extremely protein-bound; consequently, extracorporeal removal by hemodialysis is ineffective.[39]
- Administer vasopressors and inotropic agents (e.g., dopamine or norepinephrine) for severe hypotension and cardiac failure.[40]
- The use of vasopressors is common in patients with diltiazem overdose and is associated with promising clinical outcomes.[40]
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
Diltiazem has been widely used in practice for many clinical indications. Proper dosage and frequency are essential to enhance patient care and improve outcomes. Diltiazem possesses negative inotropic effects and is generally avoided in patients with congestive heart failure, and diltiazem is also on the Beers Criteria.[41] These factors highlight the importance of avoiding diltiazem in patients with heart failure, especially in the elderly, due to drug interactions and exacerbation of heart failure.[42] According to the study, older adults with hypertension who are prescribed calcium channel blockers, including diltiazem, are dispensed a loop diuretic at higher rates due to peripheral edema. This is an example of prescribing cascade; clinicians should re-assess the patient before prescribing a diuretic to treat peripheral edema.[43] [level 3]
Ideally, Clinicians should verify drug, dose, and patient factors before administration. For example, one common error with diltiazem therapy is an incorrect dose administered to the patient. Double-checking doses can help ensure the patient receives appropriate therapeutic management in inpatient and outpatient settings. Pharmacists, nurses, and other providers should also check for potential drug interactions with other medications of the patient's profile. For example, diltiazem is available in many brand names with differing recommended dosages and maximum daily doses; this vigilance will limit drug interactions and incorrect dosing. Nursing staff should monitor for clinical improvement and any adverse drug reactions and inform the clinicians in case of any inconsistency. If the pharmacist or nurse suspects anything is amiss, they should contact the prescriber immediately.
In overdose, triage nurses and emergency department physicians should quickly stabilize the patient. Critical care physician supervision is necessary for severe hypotension and cardiac failure. IABP insertion requires cardiac consultation. Obtain the latest information by contacting the poison control center (800-222-1222) in the United States. As illustrated above, clinicians (MDs, DOs, NPs, PAs), specialists, nurses, pharmacists, and other healthcare providers are involved in taking care of the patient. Hence it is vital to communicate and work collaboratively for better patient outcomes related to diltiazem therapy. An interprofessional team approach involving all the providers would maximize efficacy and minimize adverse drug reactions translating to optimal patient outcomes with minimum adverse drug reactions. [Level 5]
References
Weiner DA, Cutler SS, Klein MD. Efficacy and safety of sustained-release diltiazem in stable angina pectoris. The American journal of cardiology. 1986 Jan 1:57(1):6-9 [PubMed PMID: 3510525]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceBishop J Jr, Akram G. Diltiazem Dosing Strategies in the Management of Atrial Fibrillation With Rapid Ventricular Rate. Cureus. 2021 Oct:13(10):e18829. doi: 10.7759/cureus.18829. Epub 2021 Oct 16 [PubMed PMID: 34804686]
. Diltiazem. LiverTox: Clinical and Research Information on Drug-Induced Liver Injury. 2012:(): [PubMed PMID: 31643234]
Griffin N, Acheson AG, Jonas M, Scholefield JH. The role of topical diltiazem in the treatment of chronic anal fissures that have failed glyceryl trinitrate therapy. Colorectal disease : the official journal of the Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland. 2002 Nov:4(6):430-5 [PubMed PMID: 12790914]
Grossman E, Messerli FH. Calcium antagonists. Progress in cardiovascular diseases. 2004 Jul-Aug:47(1):34-57 [PubMed PMID: 15517514]
Mayeux JD, Pan IZ, Dechand J, Jacobs JA, Jones TL, McKellar SH, Beck E, Hatton ND, Ryan JJ. Management of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Current cardiovascular risk reports. 2021:15(1):2. doi: 10.1007/s12170-020-00663-3. Epub 2020 Nov 18 [PubMed PMID: 33224405]
Galiè N, Humbert M, Vachiery JL, Gibbs S, Lang I, Torbicki A, Simonneau G, Peacock A, Vonk Noordegraaf A, Beghetti M, Ghofrani A, Gomez Sanchez MA, Hansmann G, Klepetko W, Lancellotti P, Matucci M, McDonagh T, Pierard LA, Trindade PT, Zompatori M, Hoeper M, ESC Scientific Document Group. 2015 ESC/ERS Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: The Joint Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS): Endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC), International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT). European heart journal. 2016 Jan 1:37(1):67-119. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehv317. Epub 2015 Aug 29 [PubMed PMID: 26320113]
Lanza GA, Maseri A. Coronary Artery Spasm. Current treatment options in cardiovascular medicine. 2000 Feb:2(1):83-90 [PubMed PMID: 11096513]
Means KN, Gentry AE, Nguyen TT. Intravenous Continuous Infusion vs. Oral Immediate-release Diltiazem for Acute Heart Rate Control. The western journal of emergency medicine. 2018 Mar:19(2):417-422. doi: 10.5811/westjem.2017.10.33832. Epub 2018 Feb 22 [PubMed PMID: 29560075]
Mircioiu C, Anuta V, Mircioiu I, Nicolescu A, Fotaki N. In Vitro-In Vivo Correlations Based on In Vitro Dissolution of Parent Drug Diltiazem and Pharmacokinetics of its Metabolite. Pharmaceutics. 2019 Jul 16:11(7):. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11070344. Epub 2019 Jul 16 [PubMed PMID: 31315287]
Knight JS, Birks M, Farouk R. Topical diltiazem ointment in the treatment of chronic anal fissure. The British journal of surgery. 2001 Apr:88(4):553-6 [PubMed PMID: 11298624]
Sajid MS, Whitehouse PA, Sains P, Baig MK. Systematic review of the use of topical diltiazem compared with glyceryltrinitrate for the nonoperative management of chronic anal fissure. Colorectal disease : the official journal of the Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland. 2013 Jan:15(1):19-26. doi: 10.1111/j.1463-1318.2012.03042.x. Epub [PubMed PMID: 22487078]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceHeck J, Groh A, Stichtenoth DO, Krause O. Proposal of a Tall Man Letter list for German-speaking countries. European journal of clinical pharmacology. 2021 Aug:77(8):1247-1249. doi: 10.1007/s00228-021-03091-3. Epub 2021 Jan 27 [PubMed PMID: 33501509]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceCheng CM, Salazar A, Amato MG, Lambert BL, Volk LA, Schiff GD. Using drug knowledgebase information to distinguish between look-alike-sound-alike drugs. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association : JAMIA. 2018 Jul 1:25(7):872-884. doi: 10.1093/jamia/ocy043. Epub [PubMed PMID: 29800453]
Regitz-Zagrosek V, Roos-Hesselink JW, Bauersachs J, Blomström-Lundqvist C, Cífková R, De Bonis M, Iung B, Johnson MR, Kintscher U, Kranke P, Lang IM, Morais J, Pieper PG, Presbitero P, Price S, Rosano GMC, Seeland U, Simoncini T, Swan L, Warnes CA, ESC Scientific Document Group. 2018 ESC Guidelines for the management of cardiovascular diseases during pregnancy. European heart journal. 2018 Sep 7:39(34):3165-3241. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehy340. Epub [PubMed PMID: 30165544]
. Diltiazem. Drugs and Lactation Database (LactMed®). 2006:(): [PubMed PMID: 30000916]
de la Sierra A. Mitigation of calcium channel blocker-related oedema in hypertension by antagonists of the renin-angiotensin system. Journal of human hypertension. 2009 Aug:23(8):503-11. doi: 10.1038/jhh.2008.157. Epub 2009 Jan 15 [PubMed PMID: 19148104]
Osmonov D, Erdinler I, Ozcan KS, Altay S, Turkkan C, Yildirim E, Hasdemir H, Alper AT, Cakmak N, Satilmis S, Gurkan K. Management of patients with drug-induced atrioventricular block. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE. 2012 Jul:35(7):804-10. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-8159.2012.03410.x. Epub 2012 Apr 24 [PubMed PMID: 22530749]
Fravel MA, Ernst M. Drug Interactions with Antihypertensives. Current hypertension reports. 2021 Mar 5:23(3):14. doi: 10.1007/s11906-021-01131-y. Epub 2021 Mar 5 [PubMed PMID: 33666764]
Kinoshita H, Taniguchi T, Nishiguchi M, Ouchi H, Minami T, Utsumi T, Motomura H, Tsuda T, Ohta T, Aoki S, Komeda M, Kamamoto T, Kubota A, Fuke C, Arao T, Miyazaki T, Hishida S. An autopsy case of combined drug intoxication involving verapamil, metoprolol and digoxin. Forensic science international. 2003 Apr 23:133(1-2):107-12 [PubMed PMID: 12742696]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceSiegel JD, Ko CJ. Diltiazem-associated Photodistributed Hyperpigmentation. The Yale journal of biology and medicine. 2020 Mar:93(1):45-47 [PubMed PMID: 32226335]
Lu HT, Kam J, Nordin RB, Khelae SK, Wang JM, Choy CN, Lee CY. Beta-blocker use and risk of symptomatic bradyarrhythmias: a hospital-based case-control study. Journal of geriatric cardiology : JGC. 2016 Sep:13(9):749-759 [PubMed PMID: 27899939]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceFalconer N, Ryan M, Badman B, Carrington C. Death from diltiazem-ibrutinib interaction. Australian prescriber. 2021 Jun:44(3):107-108. doi: 10.18773/austprescr.2021.019. Epub 2021 Jun 1 [PubMed PMID: 34211249]
Pham P, Schmidt S, Lesko L, Lip GYH, Brown JD. Association of Oral Anticoagulants and Verapamil or Diltiazem With Adverse Bleeding Events in Patients With Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation and Normal Kidney Function. JAMA network open. 2020 Apr 1:3(4):e203593. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3593. Epub 2020 Apr 1 [PubMed PMID: 32329770]
Al-Khatib SM, Stevenson WG, Ackerman MJ, Bryant WJ, Callans DJ, Curtis AB, Deal BJ, Dickfeld T, Field ME, Fonarow GC, Gillis AM, Granger CB, Hammill SC, Hlatky MA, Joglar JA, Kay GN, Matlock DD, Myerburg RJ, Page RL. 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2018 Sep 25:138(13):e272-e391. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000549. Epub [PubMed PMID: 29084731]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceJanuary CT, Wann LS, Alpert JS, Calkins H, Cigarroa JE, Cleveland JC Jr, Conti JB, Ellinor PT, Ezekowitz MD, Field ME, Murray KT, Sacco RL, Stevenson WG, Tchou PJ, Tracy CM, Yancy CW, ACC/AHA Task Force Members. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation. 2014 Dec 2:130(23):2071-104. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000040. Epub 2014 Mar 28 [PubMed PMID: 24682348]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceFey H, Jost M, Geise AT, Bertsch T, Christ M. [Cardiogenic shock after drug therapy for atrial fibrillation with tachycardia : Case report of an 89-year-old woman]. Medizinische Klinik, Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin. 2016 Jun:111(5):458-62. doi: 10.1007/s00063-015-0089-9. Epub 2015 Oct 6 [PubMed PMID: 26440099]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceHeidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, Allen LA, Byun JJ, Colvin MM, Deswal A, Drazner MH, Dunlay SM, Evers LR, Fang JC, Fedson SE, Fonarow GC, Hayek SS, Hernandez AF, Khazanie P, Kittleson MM, Lee CS, Link MS, Milano CA, Nnacheta LC, Sandhu AT, Stevenson LW, Vardeny O, Vest AR, Yancy CW. 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2022 May 3:145(18):e895-e1032. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001063. Epub 2022 Apr 1 [PubMed PMID: 35363499]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceMilner E, Ainsworth M, Gleaton M, Bookstaver D. Assessment of Anti-Xa activity in patients receiving concomitant apixaban with strong p-glycoprotein inhibitors and statins. Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics. 2022 May:47(5):668-675. doi: 10.1111/jcpt.13596. Epub 2022 Jan 15 [PubMed PMID: 35032137]
Levine M, Boyer EW, Pozner CN, Geib AJ, Thomsen T, Mick N, Thomas SH. Assessment of hyperglycemia after calcium channel blocker overdoses involving diltiazem or verapamil. Critical care medicine. 2007 Sep:35(9):2071-5 [PubMed PMID: 17855820]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceThanacoody R, Caravati EM, Troutman B, Höjer J, Benson B, Hoppu K, Erdman A, Bedry R, Mégarbane B. Position paper update: whole bowel irrigation for gastrointestinal decontamination of overdose patients. Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.). 2015 Jan:53(1):5-12. doi: 10.3109/15563650.2014.989326. Epub 2014 Dec 16 [PubMed PMID: 25511637]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceIsbister GK. Delayed asystolic cardiac arrest after diltiazem overdose; resuscitation with high dose intravenous calcium. Emergency medicine journal : EMJ. 2002 Jul:19(4):355-7 [PubMed PMID: 12101159]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceProano L, Chiang WK, Wang RY. Calcium channel blocker overdose. The American journal of emergency medicine. 1995 Jul:13(4):444-50 [PubMed PMID: 7605536]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceMahr NC, Valdes A, Lamas G. Use of glucagon for acute intravenous diltiazem toxicity. The American journal of cardiology. 1997 Jun 1:79(11):1570-1 [PubMed PMID: 9185662]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceGreene SL, Gawarammana I, Wood DM, Jones AL, Dargan PI. Relative safety of hyperinsulinaemia/euglycaemia therapy in the management of calcium channel blocker overdose: a prospective observational study. Intensive care medicine. 2007 Nov:33(11):2019-24 [PubMed PMID: 17622512]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceBologa C, Lionte C, Coman A, Sorodoc L. Lipid emulsion therapy in cardiodepressive syndrome after diltiazem overdose--case report. The American journal of emergency medicine. 2013 Jul:31(7):1154.e3-4. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2013.03.010. Epub 2013 May 16 [PubMed PMID: 23685061]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceSalhanick SD,Shannon MW, Management of calcium channel antagonist overdose. Drug safety. 2003 [PubMed PMID: 12534324]
Durward A, Guerguerian AM, Lefebvre M, Shemie SD. Massive diltiazem overdose treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Pediatric critical care medicine : a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies. 2003 Jul:4(3):372-6 [PubMed PMID: 12831424]
Level 3 (low-level) evidenceWong A, Hoffman RS, Walsh SJ, Roberts DM, Gosselin S, Bunchman TE, Kebede S, Lavergne V, Ghannoum M, EXTRIP workgroup. Extracorporeal treatment for calcium channel blocker poisoning: systematic review and recommendations from the EXTRIP workgroup. Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.). 2021 May:59(5):361-375. doi: 10.1080/15563650.2020.1870123. Epub 2021 Feb 8 [PubMed PMID: 33555964]
Level 1 (high-level) evidenceLevine M, Curry SC, Padilla-Jones A, Ruha AM. Critical care management of verapamil and diltiazem overdose with a focus on vasopressors: a 25-year experience at a single center. Annals of emergency medicine. 2013 Sep:62(3):252-8. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2013.03.018. Epub 2013 May 1 [PubMed PMID: 23642908]
Level 2 (mid-level) evidenceKim H, Kim HS, Ko H, Choi J, Cho NH. Analysis of inappropriate medication use and drug interactions in older people in South Korea . International journal of clinical pharmacology and therapeutics. 2017 Nov:55(11):847-852. doi: 10.5414/CP202941. Epub [PubMed PMID: 28853697]
Hanlon JT, Schmader KE, Boult C, Artz MB, Gross CR, Fillenbaum GG, Ruby CM, Garrard J. Use of inappropriate prescription drugs by older people. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2002 Jan:50(1):26-34 [PubMed PMID: 12028243]
Savage RD, Visentin JD, Bronskill SE, Wang X, Gruneir A, Giannakeas V, Guan J, Lam K, Luke MJ, Read SH, Stall NM, Wu W, Zhu L, Rochon PA, McCarthy LM. Evaluation of a Common Prescribing Cascade of Calcium Channel Blockers and Diuretics in Older Adults With Hypertension. JAMA internal medicine. 2020 May 1:180(5):643-651. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.7087. Epub [PubMed PMID: 32091538]