Tools
Chronic Pain
Introduction
Over one-quarter of people in the United States (US) suffer from chronic pain—one of the most prevalent issues encountered in outpatient medical settings.[1] However, inadequate management of chronic pain and the subsequent reliance on opioids contribute significantly to morbidity and mortality. Most patient visits in outpatient clinics are prompted by pain-related concerns, with over half seeking relief from their primary care provider. Hence, primary care providers must comprehensively understand chronic pain management. The US spends well over 100 billion dollars annually on healthcare expenses associated with pain management and opioid use disorders.[2] This surpasses the combined expenses of cancer, diabetes, and heart disease.[3][4]
Managing a patient's chronic pain can significantly impact their quality of life. Chronic pain, defined as any pain persisting beyond 3 months, originates from various sources. Effective pain management often involves a combination of pharmacological treatments and nonpharmacological interventions. Research results indicate that multimodal combination therapy yields a more significant reduction in pain than relying solely on single treatments. Escalating pharmacological therapy is typically approached in a stepwise manner. Comorbid depression and anxiety frequently accompany chronic pain yet often go undiagnosed and untreated. Additionally, individuals with chronic pain face an elevated risk of suicide. The pervasive nature of chronic pain can detrimentally affect every aspect of a patient's life, potentially resulting in long-term disability and adverse outcomes. Consequently, diagnosing and appropriately managing chronic pain is a critical skill for healthcare professionals to cultivate.
Etiology
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Etiology
Most patients with chronic pain report experiencing multiple types of pain simultaneously.[5] For instance, an individual with chronic back pain might also contend with fibromyalgia. Moreover, a considerable proportion of patients with chronic pain also suffer from major depressive and generalized anxiety disorder, with over 67% experiencing a comorbid psychiatric disorder.[6][7]
Pain manifests in various categories and types, encompassing neuropathic, nociceptive, musculoskeletal, inflammatory, psychogenic, and mechanical forms. The following are some examples of each category:
- Neuropathic pain: Divided into 2 groups
- Peripheral neuropathic pain: Postherpetic neuralgia and diabetic neuropathy
- Central neuropathic pain: Cerebral vascular accident sequella
- Nociceptive pain:
- Pain due to actual tissue injuries such as burns, contusions, sprains as well as surgical pain
- Musculoskeletal pain
- Back pain, including radicular pain, to the appropriate dermatome
- Myofascial pain
- Inflammatory pain
- Autoimmune disorders (rheumatoid arthritis, fibromyalgia, and gout)
- Infection and cancer pain
- Psychogenic pain
- Pain caused by psychological factors, such as headaches or abdominal pain caused by emotional, psychological, or behavioral factors
- Mechanical pain
- Expanding malignancy, benign tumors, advanced ascites, fractures, and retained hardware pain
Epidemiology
Over 100 million individuals in the US meet the criteria for chronic pain syndrome, with more than 20 million enduring severe, incapacitating chronic pain.[1] Among patients with chronic pain, chronic regional pain affects 11.1%, chronic back pain accounts for 10.1%, leg and foot pain affects 7.1%, arm and hand pain affects 4.1%, and headache affects 3.5%. Additionally, 3.6% of patients with chronic pain experience widespread pain.[6]
Older patients receive up to 25% fewer pain medications than the general population.[8] Chronic pain is also associated with metabolic alterations and cognitive disorders among affected individuals.[8][9] Studies indicate that the lifetime prevalence of suicide attempts among patients with chronic pain ranges from 5% to 14%, with approximately 20% experiencing suicidal ideation.[10] Among patients with chronic pain who died by suicide, 53.6% succumbed to firearm-related injuries, while 16.2% died from an opioid overdose.[11][12][13]
Pathophysiology
Due to the diverse pathology underlying the cause of pain, no single physiological finding can encompass all the various mechanisms that produce symptoms. However, it is understood that regardless of the type of pain, the resulting impact is likely similar.[14] Moreover, the complexity of pain perception and its multifaceted nature shows the importance of a comprehensive approach to pain management.
History and Physical
A thorough medical history is an initial step in diagnosing, differentiating, and evaluating patients with chronic pain. The history should include crucial details such as the onset date, pain description (eg, burning, throbbing, radicular, superficial, or deep), potential injury mechanisms, pain location, and severity. Additionally, identifying factors that alleviate or exacerbate the pain is essential. Understanding whether the pain is constant or intermittent (breakthrough pain) or a mix of both aids in determining appropriate treatment options.
A verbal numeric rating scale or a pain intensity scale ranging from 0-10 is standard for assessing pain severity. Furthermore, it is essential to determine associated symptoms like muscle spasms, skin temperature changes, restricted range of motion, morning stiffness, weakness, muscle strength alterations, sensation changes, and skin, hair, or nail abnormalities.[15]
In addition to assessing the patient's symptoms, it is helpful to explore how chronic pain impacts their day-to-day functioning and quality of life. This entails discussing the effect of pain on activities of daily living and overall functionality. Understanding how pain influences relationships, hobbies, and emotional well-being is vital. Questions about depression, sleep quality, exercise tolerance, work productivity, and the ability to perform basic tasks like toileting, dressing, bathing, walking, or eating without limitations are pertinent to a comprehensive understanding of the patient's condition.
Following the comprehensive history, the physical examination should include detailed assessments of strength, range of motion, and flexibility. The physical examination must corroborate the details reported in the history and support the patient's pain complaints. Auscultation of the lungs and heart and palpation of the abdomen allow the clinician to observe the patient's movements as they transition onto and off the examination table.[16] Observation of the patient is crucial for confirming the reported complaints---allowing the examiner to differentiate between the patient's perception of pain and any fear or anticipation of pain that can significantly influence the treatment plan.[16]
Additionally, a thorough neurological examination should be conducted during the physical assessment. There is benefit in closely examining the area of pain, paying attention to any skin changes, temperature variations between extremities, trophic changes resulting from chronic exposure to heat or cold compresses, and any excoriations from chronic picking. Furthermore, observing for hair loss on the scalp and extremities can provide valuable insights into the patient's condition.[17]
Older adults constitute a specific demographic frequently affected by chronic pain, yet self-reporting of pain can be challenging in this population. Accurate self-reporting is crucial for identifying and effectively treating pain; however, difficulties in describing and communicating pain often lead to undertreatment. Moreover, older patients may express their pain differently than the general population, complicating the diagnosis.[8][18] Rather than explicitly labeling it pain, an older individual might only describe soreness or discomfort.[19][20][21]
Evaluation
The Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) is a valuable tool for evaluating patients' perceptions of pain and its impact on their daily lives.[22][23] Additionally, the McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ-2) includes a pain location drawing, a questionnaire regarding previous pain medication use, and experiences with pain history.[24] Neuropathic pain is assessable using the Neuropathic Pain Scale to monitor responses to therapy.
Standard blood work and imaging are not recommended for routine evaluation of chronic pain. However, clinicians may order these tests when specific underlying causes are suspected. Laboratory studies can be requested on a case-by-case basis, including baseline studies to evaluate liver function when certain medications with potential hepatic side effects are prescribed.
Psychiatric disorders can exacerbate pain signaling, intensifying pain symptoms.[25] Furthermore, comorbid psychiatric conditions, such as major depressive disorder, can significantly delay the diagnosis of pain disorders.[7][26] Major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorders are the most prevalent comorbidities associated with chronic pain.
Patients with underlying pain and comorbid psychiatric disorders receive approximately twice as many opioid prescriptions annually compared to those without such comorbidity.[19] For instance, individuals with depression commonly experience fatigue, sleep disturbances, decreased appetite, and reduced activity levels, all of which can exacerbate pain symptoms over time. Patients with chronic pain face an elevated risk of suicide and suicidal ideation.[10][11]
Screening for depression is advised for patients experiencing chronic pain. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-II (MMPI-2) and Beck Depression Scale are the primary assessment tools utilized for this purpose. Among these, the MMPI-2 is more commonly used for patients with chronic pain.[27][28][29][30]
Treatment / Management
When debilitating pain persists despite therapeutic interventions, referral to a pain management specialist is warranted. The pain may be widespread, necessitating multimodal treatment approaches or adjustments in medication dosages to achieve adequate pain control. In some cases, invasive procedures designed to control refractory pain may be recommended.
It is essential to address both the pain itself and any comorbid conditions, especially psychiatric disorders, to develop a comprehensive treatment plan. Research indicates that addressing both pain and psychiatric disorders leads to more significant reductions in pain severity and associated symptoms.[31][32] Moreover, chronic pain can exacerbate concurrent depression, highlighting the importance of pain management in improving responses to depression.[33][34] Patients have access to various pharmacological, adjunct, nonpharmacological, and interventional treatments tailored to their needs for managing chronic, severe, and refractory pain.(A1)
The array of pharmacological options for chronic pain management is extensive. Nonopioid analgesics such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs), acetaminophen, and aspirin are commonly used. Additionally, medications such as tramadol, opioids, and antiepileptic drugs like gabapentin or pregabalin can be effective. Furthermore, antidepressants such as tricyclic antidepressants and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), topical analgesics, muscle relaxers, N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists, and alpha 2 adrenergic agonists are also possible pharmacological therapies for managing chronic pain.[32](A1)
Treatment responses can vary among individuals, but typically, a stepwise approach is adopted to minimize the duration and dosage of opioid analgesics. However, there is no singular approach to pain treatment, underscoring the significance of conducting a comprehensive initial work-up.[35]
Chronic musculoskeletal pain, characterized as nociceptive pain, is typically managed in a stepwise manner, often incorporating a combination of nonopioid analgesics, opioids, and nonpharmacological therapies. Acetaminophen and NSAIDs serve as first-line therapies due to their efficacy in conditions like osteoarthritis and chronic back pain.[36][37][38][39] However, NSAIDs are relatively contraindicated for individuals with a history of heart disease, myocardial infarction, renal disease, or those on anticoagulation or with a history of ulcers.[40][41] There is limited evidence to suggest one NSAID is superior to another; therefore, trying different agents is recommended before considering opioid analgesics.[42] If adequate pain relief is not achieved with acetaminophen or NSAIDs, opioid analgesics may be considered. (A1)
Opioids are considered a second-line option for pain management; however, they may be warranted in cases of severe persistent pain or neuropathic pain secondary to malignancy.[43] The evidence regarding the use of opioids in neuropathic pain is mixed, but they are often utilized for short-term and intermediate pain relief in this context.[44][45] When initiating opioid therapy for chronic musculoskeletal pain, extreme caution is advised due to the significant side effects associated with opioids, including opioid-induced hyperalgesia, constipation, dependence, and sedation.[46] Additionally, for chronic musculoskeletal pain, opioids are not found to be superior to nonopioid analgesics.[47][48](A1)
The administration of opioid analgesics is recommended when alternative pain medications have proven ineffective or contraindicated and when pain significantly impacts the patient's quality of life, with the potential benefits outweighing the short and long-term effects of opioid therapy. However, patients must make an informed decision before initiating opioid treatment, following a thorough discussion of the associated risks, benefits, and available alternatives.[47][49][50] (A1)
Notably, patients taking opioids at doses exceeding 100 morphine milligram equivalents per day are at significantly increased risk of side effects, with respiratory compromise becoming more prevalent as dosages escalate. Therefore, patients with chronic pain may benefit from a structured therapy program aimed at tapering them off high-opioid regimens to safer levels.[51][52] Long-acting opioids should be reserved for cases of disabling pain that severely impairs quality of life, with short-acting opioids preferred otherwise.[53][54]
There is an estimated 78% risk of experiencing adverse reactions to opioids, including constipation or nausea, with a 7.5% risk of severe adverse reactions, ranging from immunosuppression to respiratory depression.[55] For patients with chronic pain who meet the criteria for opioid use disorder, buprenorphine should be considered as an option for managing their pain. Buprenorphine is a preferable alternative, especially for individuals with very high daily morphine equivalents who have not achieved sufficient analgesia with other treatments.[56][57][58](B2)
Different types of pain warrant distinct treatment approaches. For example, chronic musculoskeletal back pain would be managed differently from severe diabetic neuropathy. Neuropathic pain often requires a combination of multiple pharmacological therapies, as less than 50% of patients achieve adequate pain relief with a single agent.[59] Adjunctive topical therapies, such as lidocaine or capsaicin cream, can also be beneficial in managing neuropathic pain.[60][61][62](A1)
The initial pharmacological approach to treating neuropathic pain often involves gabapentin or pregabalin, both of which are calcium channel alpha 2-delta ligands. The medications are indicated for conditions like postherpetic neuralgia, diabetic neuropathy, and mixed neuropathy.[63] While there is limited evidence supporting the use of other antiepileptic medications to treat chronic pain, where many of these, such as lamotrigine, have a more significant side effect profile. The exception is carbamazepine in the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia and other forms of chronic neuropathic pain.[64][65](A1)
Alternatively, antidepressants such as dual reuptake inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine (SNRI) or tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) represent another treatment option. Antidepressants are beneficial in managing neuropathic pain, central pain syndromes, and chronic musculoskeletal pain. In the case of neuropathic pain, antidepressants have demonstrated a 50% reduction in pain intensity. This substantial reduction is noteworthy, especially considering that the average pain reduction achieved by various pain treatments is around 30%.[66][67][68](A1)
The SNRI duloxetine is effective in treating chronic pain, osteoarthritis, and fibromyalgia.[69] Furthermore, duloxetine demonstrates comparable efficacy in treating comorbid depression when compared to other antidepressants.[66][70] Venlafaxine is another effective option for treating neuropathic pain.[71] TCAs, such as nortriptyline, can also be utilized for pain management. However, it is important to note that TCAs may require 6-8 weeks to achieve their desired therapeutic effect.[43](A1)
Adjunctive topical agents, such as topical lidocaine, are beneficial for managing neuropathic pain and allodynia, as observed in postherpetic neuralgia.[72][73] While topical NSAIDs have demonstrated efficacy in improving acute musculoskeletal pain, such as strains, their effectiveness in chronic pain is limited. However, they are more effective than controls in treating pain associated with knee osteoarthritis.[74][75] (A1)
Additionally, topical capsaicin cream is an option for chronic neuropathic or musculoskeletal pain that is unresponsive to other treatments.[76] Botulinum toxin has also demonstrated effectiveness in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia.[77] Cannabis use is an area of interest in pain research, with some evidence suggesting that medical marijuana can effectively treat neuropathic pain, although evidence for treating other types of chronic pain remains limited.[78](A1)
The array of nonpharmacological therapies for chronic pain is extensive. These options include heat and cold therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, relaxation therapy, biofeedback, group counseling, ultrasound stimulation, acupuncture, aerobic exercise, chiropractic, physical therapy, osteopathic manipulative medicine, occupational therapy, and transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units. In addition to these therapies, interventional techniques are crucial in chronic pain treatment. These techniques include spinal cord stimulation, epidural steroid injections, radiofrequency nerve ablations, botulinum toxin injections, nerve blocks, trigger point injections, and intrathecal pain pumps.
The efficacy of TENS units has shown variability, and their role in chronic pain management remains inconclusive.[79] Deep brain stimulation is reserved for post-stroke and facial pain, as well as severe, intractable pain refractory to other treatments.[80] While evidence for interventional approaches to pain management is limited, implantable intrathecal delivery systems can be considered for patients with refractory pain who have exhausted all other options.(A1)
Spinal cord stimulators represent a viable option for patients with chronic pain who have not responded to conservative treatments. While they are most frequently implanted following failed back surgery, they can be considered for various other causes of chronic pain, including complex regional pain syndrome, painful peripheral vascular disease, intractable angina, painful diabetic neuropathy, and visceral abdominal and perineal pain.[81][82][83][84][85] Research indicates that spinal cord stimulators can lead to a significant 50% reduction in pain compared to continued medical therapy.[86][87][88](A1)
Differential Diagnosis
Pain is a symptom, not a diagnosis. Therefore, developing a differential diagnosis for a patient's chronic pain involves assessing their underlying etiologies. Determining the underlying injury or disease process responsible for the pain is essential because effective treatment hinges on understanding the etiology. For instance, distinguishing between peripheral and central neuropathic pain is necessary as it dictates the most effective treatment modality.
Similarly, when a patient presents with severe knee pain, it is essential to differentiate between conditions like severe osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. This determination influences whether treatments such as injections or knee replacement would be beneficial. Conversely, if the knee pain were due to conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, infection, gout, pseudogout, or meniscal injury, different treatments could be more efficacious.
The differential diagnosis for generalized chronic pain encompasses various conditions, including patients who develop allodynia from chronic opioid use, those suffering from major depressive disorder, and other psychiatric disorders like bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Furthermore, autoimmune diseases such as lupus or psoriatic arthritis, fibromyalgia, and central pain syndromes should be considered in cases involving widespread, generalized chronic pain.
The 4 main categories of pain—neuropathic, musculoskeletal, mechanical, and inflammatory—should guide the diagnostic process. Persistent and undertreated painful conditions can lead to chronic pain, which often becomes a symptom of one or multiple diagnoses and can eventually become a diagnosis itself as it persists and alters the body's neurochemistry. Treating acute and subacute pain promptly is crucial in preventing the development of chronic pain syndromes.
Prognosis
Current chronic pain treatments can result in an estimated 30% decrease in a patient's pain scores.[35] A thirty percent reduction in a patient's pain can significantly improve patients' function and quality of life.[89] However, the long-term prognosis for patients with chronic pain demonstrates reduced function and quality of life. Improved outcomes are possible in patients with chronic pain improves with the treatment of comorbid psychiatric illness. Chronic pain increases patient morbidity and mortality, as well as increases rates of chronic disease and obesity. Patients with chronic pain are also at a significantly increased risk for suicide compared to the regular population.
Spinal cord stimulation results in inadequate pain relief in about 50% of patients. Tolerance can also occur in up to 20 to 40 percent of patients. The effectiveness of the spinal cord stimulation decreases over time.[90] Similarly, patients who develop chronic pain and are dependent on opioids often build tolerance over time. As the amount of morphine milligram equivalents increases, the patient's morbidity and mortality also increase.
Ultimately, prevention is critical in the treatment of chronic pain. If acute and subacute pain receives appropriate treatment and chronic pain can be avoided, the patient will have limited impacts on their quality of life.
Complications
Chronic pain significantly decreases quality of life and productivity and can lead to lost wages. It worsens chronic diseases and contributes to psychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders. Patients with chronic pain face a significantly increased risk of suicide and suicidal ideation.
Many medications commonly used to treat chronic pain carry potential risks, side effects, and possible complications. Acetaminophen is a standard pharmacological therapy for patients with chronic pain, taken either as a single agent or in combination with an opioid. However, hepatotoxicity can occur, especially with doses exceeding 4 grams per day, making it the most common cause of acute liver failure in the US.[91][92] Furthermore, hepatotoxicity can occur at therapeutic doses for patients diagnosed with chronic liver disease.[93]
Frequently used adjunct medications such as gabapentin or pregabalin can cause sedation, swelling, mood changes, confusion, and respiratory depression in older patients who require additional analgesics.[94] These agents require caution in older patients with painful diabetic neuropathy. Moreover, combining gabapentin or pregabalin with opioid analgesics has been shown to increase the rate of patient mortality.[95]
Duloxetine can cause mood changes, headaches, nausea, and other possible side effects and should be avoided in patients with a history of kidney or liver disease. Patients with these conditions should be closely monitored if duloxetine is prescribed.
Feared complications of opioid therapy include addiction, overdose resulting in respiratory compromise, and occasionally, death. However, opioid-induced hyperalgesia is also a significant concern, where patients become more sensitive to painful stimuli while on chronic opioids.[96] The long-term risks and side effects of opioids include constipation, tolerance, dependence, nausea, dyspepsia, arrhythmia (methadone treatment QT prolongation), and opioid-induced endocrine dysfunction, which can result in amenorrhea, impotence, gynecomastia, and decreased energy and libido. Additionally, there appears to be a dose-dependent risk of opioid overdose with increasing daily milligram morphine equivalents.
Complication rates for spinal cord stimulators are high, ranging from 5% up to 40%.[97][98] Most commonly, lead migration occurs, causing inadequate pain relief and requiring revision and anchoring.[99][100] Lead movement often occurs in the cervical region of the spinal cord, given an increased range of motion of the cervical vertebra.[101][102] Spinal cord stimulator lead fracture can occur in up to 9% of placements.[103][104] Seromas are also very common and may require surgical incision and drainage.[97][105] The risk of infection following a spinal cord stimulator placement is between 2.5% and 12%.[106][107] Lastly, direct spinal cord trauma could occur. The most significant infectious complication would be a spinal cord abscess. Dural puncture is rare but can cause a post-dural headache in up to 70% of patients.[105][108][109] The most critical adverse event in spinal cord stimulator placement would be a spinal epidural hematoma, which requires immediate neurosurgical decompression. The incidence of a spinal epidural hematoma is 0.71%.[110]
Deterrence and Patient Education
Chronic pain management is most effective when handled by an interprofessional team, which includes a primary care physician and a pain management specialist. A multimodal treatment approach is optimal for achieving better pain control and outcomes while minimizing the need for high-risk treatments such as opioids.
Medication dosages should be gradually increased stepwise and titrated according to the patient's pain level. Patients on chronic opioids should be offered medications for opioid addiction if there are concerns about dependence or misuse. Clinicians can offer interventional procedures to patients with chronic pain who are unresponsive to medications or those who wish to reduce or discontinue chronic opioid treatment.
Management of comorbid depression and anxiety is crucial for reducing chronic pain. The older population may describe pain differently than the average population. Following spinal cord stimulator implantation, patients should have periodic visits with their pain provider to adjust the stimulator's settings for maximum effectiveness. Patients with chronic pain should be closely monitored for severe depression and suicidal ideation. Regular assessment and intervention for mental health issues are essential in ensuring the overall well-being of chronic pain patients with chronic pain.
Pearls and Other Issues
Key facts to keep in mind about chronic pain management include the following:
- Multimodal approach: Combine pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies for better pain control.
- Interprofessional team: Primary care physicians and pain management specialists work together.
- Medication management:
- Start with nonopioid analgesics like acetaminophen or NSAIDs.
- Gradually increase dosages stepwise according to pain.
- Be cautious of side effects of adjunct medications like gabapentin or pregabalin.
- Offer opioid addiction medications if misuse is a concern.
- Interventional procedures: Consider for refractory pain or opioid reduction.
- Psychological factors: Manage comorbid depression and anxiety.
- Older patients: Note different pain expressions and special considerations.
- Monitoring: Regularly assess for severe depression or suicidal ideation.
- Safety concerns with opioids:
- Know risks like addiction, overdose, and hyperalgesia.
- Understand long-term effects like constipation, tolerance, and dependence.
Enhancing Healthcare Team Outcomes
Chronic pain is a complex condition with significant implications for patient's quality of life, requiring a comprehensive and interprofessional approach to management. To ensure patient-centered care, favorable outcomes, patient safety, and effective team performance, healthcare professionals across various disciplines must possess specific skills, adhere to ethical principles, understand their responsibilities, communicate effectively, and coordinate care efficiently.
Healthcare professionals in chronic pain management must possess various skills, including advanced assessment techniques, knowledge of evidence-based treatments, and proficiency in administering multiple therapies. Physicians, advanced practitioners, nurses, pharmacists, and other healthcare providers should continually update their skills through training and education to deliver the best possible care to patients with chronic pain.
A strategic approach to chronic pain management involves early evaluation, conservative treatment when symptoms are mild or moderate, and escalation of therapy as needed. A pharmacist should evaluate pharmacological management regularly to prevent adverse drug interactions. The interprofessional team should develop a cohesive plan that addresses the patient's physical, psychological, and social needs.
Each member of the interprofessional team has specific responsibilities in chronic pain management. Physicians and advanced practitioners are responsible for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning, while nurses monitor patient progress and compliance with the treatment plan. Pharmacists ensure medication safety and reconciliation; other healthcare professionals contribute their expertise as needed.
Effective communication among team members is crucial for providing seamless care to patients with chronic pain. Regular meetings, case conferences, and shared electronic health records facilitate communication and collaboration, ensuring alignment of treatment goals and timely interventions.
Coordinating care across different settings and disciplines is essential to address the multifaceted nature of chronic pain. Patients should have regular follow-up appointments with their primary care provider and specialists as needed. Nursing is crucial in monitoring patient progress, identifying adverse effects, and communicating concerns to the treating physicians.
Additionally, nurses can support patients with chronic pain by providing education on pain management techniques, facilitating access to resources, and advocating for their needs within the healthcare system. Pharmacists can conduct medication therapy management to optimize drug therapy and provide patient education on medication use and side effects.
In summary, by enhancing skills, adopting strategic approaches, upholding ethical principles, fulfilling responsibilities, promoting interprofessional communication, and coordinating care effectively, healthcare professionals can enhance patient-centered care, improve outcomes, ensure patient safety, and optimize team performance in chronic pain management.
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